The big idea: Think of ten things you're sure of. How many did you work out yourself — and how many were you simply told?
Things you're sure of
- That the Earth orbits the Sun
- That a place called Antarctica exists
- That you were born on a certain date
The answer: Almost all of it, you were told. This micro looks at the sources knowledge really comes from.
We can name three main sources of knowledge: perception, reason and testimony.
Three sources of knowledge
Perception
What you learn directly through your senses — seeing, hearing, touching.
Reason
What you work out by thinking — logic, maths, drawing conclusions.
Testimony
What others tell you — teachers, books, news, the whole store of human knowledge.
See · Think · Told
Free preview
This is the free notes preview
You're reading the free notes. Aimnova Pro unlocks the full study experience — and you can try it with your first topic free to keep:
- FlashcardsLock in vocabulary and key terms with spaced repetition.
- Practice questionsAnswer exam-style questions and get instant AI marking.
- Mock exams & past-paper vaultSit full mocks and see exactly how examiners award marks.
- Personalised study planA daily plan built around your exam date and weak areas.
Testimony is the giant of the three — and also the one philosophers most distrust.
Most of what you 'know', you never checked: You've never been to Antarctica, never measured the Earth's orbit, never checked your own birth certificate against the hospital. You believe these because trustworthy people told you. That's testimony — and it's the source almost all your knowledge actually runs through.
Checkpoint — testimony: In one line: most of what you know you were TOLD, and that can be real knowledge — as long as the source is reliable. Now a fourth, more surprising source.
Never wonder what to study next
Get a personalized daily plan based on your exam date, progress, and weak areas. We'll tell you exactly what to review each day.
Perception, reason and testimony are the usual three. One Indian tradition adds a fourth that doesn't fit any of them.
Bhartrhari: pratibha, a flash of knowing: The Indian philosopher Bhartrhari wrote about pratibha — a sudden, whole understanding that arrives all at once, not by step-by-step reasoning or by looking.
What it is like
- It's the 'aha!' when a sentence's meaning lands, or when a solution simply appears
- You didn't deduce it and no one told you; it came as a flash of intuition
- Bhartrhari treated this immediate insight as a genuine way of knowing in its own right
Go further — higher-level insight: Notice how pratibha pressures the JTB definition from 3.1.1. Insight can be true and it can be belief — but can you give the JUSTIFICATION? 'I just saw it' isn't a reason you can spell out. So intuition either widens what counts as justification, or sits awkwardly outside knowledge. Naming that tension is a top-band move.
Checkpoint — pratibha: In one line: pratibha is a flash of intuitive insight — knowing something all at once, without deducing it or being told.