Key Idea: Constructing arguments is the skill that turns what you know into marks. Every answer in Paper 1 and Paper 2 is graded on how well you build reasons into a conclusion — not on how much you can describe. Master this and every essay has a spine: clear premises, a conclusion that follows, and premises you can defend.
🧠 The sub-skills, one card each
Topic 11.1 at a glance
- Argument, not a fight — An argument is premises (reasons) supporting a conclusion. Spot them with signal words: 'because/since' flag premises; 'so/therefore' flag conclusions.
- Deductive vs inductive — Deductive: true premises make the conclusion certain (like maths). Inductive: they make it likely (like science). Don't judge an inductive argument as if it should be certain.
- Valid vs sound — Validity is about the FORM — does the conclusion follow? Soundness adds that the premises are actually TRUE. Separate form from truth; it is the top-level move.
- Hidden premises — 'She's a politician, so don't trust her' hides 'no politician can be trusted.' Drag the unstated assumption into the open, then you can test it.
- Build your own — Work backwards: state the claim, give real reasons (not restatements), check the form, check the truth. Then name your own weakest premise.
Premises must actually support the conclusion. A pile of true statements is not an argument unless the conclusion genuinely follows from them. Before you write, ask: would my premises force my conclusion? If there is a gap, you have a hidden premise to state — or a weak argument to fix.
✍️ See it work
Practice claim — 'Because artificial intelligence can already beat any human at chess, it must be more intelligent than we are.' Evaluate this argument.
🔒 Model answer plan
See the mark-by-mark plan — for / against / judgement, with marking guidance — in study mode.
Important: Listing true statements and calling it an argument. Facts only become an argument when the conclusion genuinely follows from them. If there is a gap between your reasons and your claim, you have either a hidden premise to make explicit or a weak argument to rebuild — never leave the jump unexplained.
✅ Check yourself
Six quick technique checks. If you can do these, you can build an argument under exam pressure.
Premise vs conclusion — how do you spot each? Premises follow 'because/since/for'; conclusions follow 'so/therefore/thus'. The premises give reasons; the conclusion is what they support.
Deductive vs inductive? Deductive: true premises make the conclusion certain. Inductive: they make it likely. Judge each by its own standard.
Validity vs soundness? Validity = the conclusion follows (good form). Soundness = valid AND the premises are true. Keep form and truth apart.
What is a hidden premise? An unstated assumption the argument relies on. Bring it into the open and you can test it — often it's the weak link.
How do you build an argument? State the claim, give real reasons, check the form (valid?), check the truth (sound?), then name your own weakest premise.
Two ways to reject an argument? Show the form is broken (invalid) or show a premise is false (unsound). Naming which is doing philosophy.
Exam Tips
- Before writing any answer, silently set out your premises and conclusion — if they don't connect, fix the gap first.
- Say 'this argument is valid but I reject premise 2 as false' — separating form from truth is a precise, high-level move.
- Name your own weakest premise; showing where your argument is vulnerable earns more than pretending it's airtight.
- One example is not proof — a single case rarely establishes a general claim, so don't rest a conclusion on it.