Key Idea: Evaluating arguments is the skill that reaches the top band. Constructing an argument shows you can reason; testing one shows you can judge — and Paper 1 and Paper 2 reserve their highest marks for reasoned judgement. Master this and every essay does more than present views: it weighs them and decides.
🧠 The sub-skills, one card each
Topic 11.2 at a glance
- Two places to strike — Every argument can be attacked in exactly two ways: deny a PREMISE (so it's unsound) or deny the INFERENCE (so it's invalid). Always say which you're doing.
- The counterexample — One clear case that breaks a sweeping claim. 'All birds fly' — the penguin. A well-chosen counterexample can topple a premise in a single sentence.
- Name the fallacy — A precise label beats a vague 'that's unfair': straw man, ad hominem, begging the question, false dilemma, slippery slope, hasty generalisation.
- Steelman first — Beat the STRONGEST version of a view, not a weakened one. Attacking a distorted version (a straw man) fools no examiner and wins no marks.
- Weigh and judge — Line the objections up, decide which really bite, and reach a reasoned, consistent conclusion. This is the move that lifts an answer into the top band.
Attack the inference or a premise — never the person. Saying 'you would think that' is an ad hominem and earns nothing. A real evaluation asks two questions only: is a premise false? and does the conclusion actually follow? Everything else is noise.
✍️ See it work
Practice claim — 'People are naturally selfish, so any attempt to build a fair society is doomed to fail.' Evaluate this argument.
Model answer plan
See the mark-by-mark plan — for / against / judgement, with marking guidance — in study mode.
Important: Disagreeing instead of evaluating. 'I don't think that's right' is not an objection. A real evaluation names the target — this premise is false (here's the counterexample) or this inference is a fallacy (here's its name) — and then weighs it. Rejecting a view without saying WHERE it breaks earns nothing.
✅ Check yourself
Six quick technique checks. If you can do these, you can evaluate under exam pressure.
The two lines of attack? Deny a premise (unsound) or deny the inference (invalid). Always say which one you're doing.
What is a counterexample? One clear case that shows a general claim is false — like a penguin against 'all birds fly'. It can topple a premise in a sentence.
Name three fallacies. Straw man (distorting a view), ad hominem (attacking the person), begging the question (assuming what you're proving). Also false dilemma, slippery slope, hasty generalisation.
What is steelmanning? Restating a view in its strongest, fairest form before you attack it. Beating the strong version, not a weak one, is what convinces.
Why not attack the person? It's an ad hominem — irrelevant to whether the argument is good. Attack the premise or the inference instead.
What is the top-band move? Weighing the objections and reaching a reasoned, consistent judgement — not just listing views, but deciding with a reason.
Exam tips
- Say explicitly whether you're denying a premise or the inference — precision here is exactly what the AO3 marks reward.
- Keep a stock of counterexamples ready; one clear case can dismantle a sweeping premise faster than a paragraph of argument.
- Name the fallacy — 'that's a false dilemma' beats 'that seems unfair' every time.
- Always steelman before you strike, then end on a reasoned judgement — never leave the objections hanging without a decision.