The big idea: In everyday life an 'argument' is a row. In philosophy it is something calmer and more powerful: a set of reasons that support a claim.
Why it matters: An argument is how you turn an opinion into something you can defend — and it is the single skill every Philosophy paper is really testing.
Every argument has two parts. The premises are the reasons; the conclusion is what they add up to.
Premise signals
- because, since, for, as
- They introduce a reason
- '...because the streets are wet.'
Conclusion signals
- so, therefore, thus, hence
- They introduce the main claim
- 'Therefore it rained.'
Spot the argument: "You should sleep more, because tired brains remember less, and your exams are close."
Conclusion: you should sleep more. Premises: tired brains remember less; your exams are close.
The word because gives it away.
Keep this clear: Premise = a reason.
Conclusion = what the reasons support.
An argument is not stating an opinion louder — it is backing it up.
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Arguments come in two kinds, and mixing them up is a classic mistake.
Deductive
- If the premises are true, the conclusion must be true
- Aims for certainty (like maths)
- 'All A are B; x is A; so x is B'
Inductive
- The premises make the conclusion likely, not certain
- Aims for good evidence (like science)
- 'The sun rose every day, so it will rise tomorrow'
For deductive arguments, two words decide everything. Validity is about the shape; soundness adds that the premises are actually true.
The two checks on a deductive argument
Is it valid?
Does the conclusion follow from the premises? Test the shape, not the truth.
Are the premises true?
Now check each premise against reality.
Then it is sound
Valid + true premises = sound. A sound argument you cannot reasonably reject.
Valid form → True premises → Sound
How this is tested: Examiners love answers that separate form from truth. Saying 'this argument is valid, but I reject premise 2 as false' is a precise, high-level move — far stronger than 'I disagree'.
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To build your own argument, work backwards: start from the conclusion you want, then find premises that genuinely support it.
How to build an argument
State your claim
Write the conclusion in one clear sentence.
Give real reasons
List premises that would make someone accept it — not just restate it.
Check the form
Does the conclusion actually follow? Or is there a gap?
Check the truth
Is each premise defensible? Where is it weakest?
Claim → Reasons → Check form → Check truth
Watch for a hidden premise. 'She's a politician, so don't trust her' hides the premise 'no politician can be trusted' — and once it's out in the open, you can question it.
A logic from India: the Nyaya five-step: Logic is not only Western. The classical Indian Nyaya school taught a careful five-step inference. It builds in the example and the rule — a reminder that a good argument shows its general principle, not just its conclusion.
The Nyaya five-step
Claim
The hill has fire.
Reason
Because it has smoke.
Rule + example
Where there's smoke there's fire, as in a kitchen.
Apply
This hill has such smoke.
Conclude
So the hill has fire.
Claim → Reason → Rule + example → Apply → Conclude
Weak moves to avoid: 1. Restating, not arguing. 'It's wrong because it's bad' gives no real reason.
2. A gap in the logic. The premises don't actually reach the conclusion.
3. A shaky hidden premise. Drag the assumption into the open and defend it.
4. One example as proof. One case rarely proves a general claim.
Why this skill wins marks: Every Philosophy answer — Paper 1, 2 or 3 — is graded on how well you build and handle arguments. Setting out clear premises and a conclusion, then testing them, is the move that lifts you above description.
Practice task — Build a clear argument for the claim: 'A machine could never be truly creative.' Set out your premises and conclusion, then test your own argument.
Model answer plan
See the mark-by-mark plan — for / against / judgement, with marking guidance — in study mode.
The habit to build: In every essay, silently ask: what are my premises, and would they force my conclusion? If you can answer that, you are doing philosophy.