Key Idea: South Africa's modern history is one long argument over land, labour and race — and it all starts with rocks in the ground. Diamonds (1867) and gold (1886) created huge wealth almost overnight, and that wealth built both a war and a racial labour system. That system hardened into apartheid in 1948, apartheid was fought from every angle for over 40 years, and it finally collapsed in 1990–94 under a mix of internal resistance and international pressure. Follow the thread: minerals to segregation to apartheid to liberation.
How this topic is tested
You will answer ONE essay from a choice, each an evaluate-the-claim question worth 15 marks: "To what extent do you agree that…". There is no source booklet — you rely entirely on your own knowledge. Top marks need a clear line of argument (a thesis), evidence for AND against the claim, and a substantiated final judgement that directly answers "to what extent". You do NOT need historiography (naming historians) for the top band — what matters is YOUR reasoning, backed by precise dates, names and events. A common trap: writing a narrative ("first this happened, then this happened...") instead of an argument. Examiners want you constantly weighing the claim, not just telling the story.
Must-know facts from every sub-topic
This topic has three micro-topics. Make sure you can talk confidently about all three before the exam.
| Micro | Focus | Key names & dates you must know |
|---|---|---|
| 10.6.1 | Mineral Revolution to South African War | Diamonds at Kimberley (1867), gold on the Witwatersrand (1886); Cecil Rhodes/De Beers, the Randlords; Uitlanders vs President Paul Kruger's Transvaal; Alfred Milner's pressure; compounds, pass laws, colour bar (early segregation); war declared 11 Oct 1899; sieges (Mafeking, Kimberley, Ladysmith) then Roberts/Kitchener's advance; guerrilla phase with scorched earth + concentration camps (~26,000 Boer deaths); Peace of Vereeniging (1902); leads to Union of South Africa (1910). |
| 10.6.2 | Segregation hardens into apartheid; resistance grows | Natives' Land Act (1913), Urban Areas Act (1923); National Party wins 1948 under D.F. Malan; Population Registration Act, Group Areas Act, Bantu Education Act (1950–53); Petty vs Grand Apartheid; Bantustans; ANC (1912) and ANC Youth League (1944, Mandela/Tambo/Sisulu); Defiance Campaign (1952); Freedom Charter (1955); Sharpeville massacre (21 March 1960); ANC/PAC banned; Umkhonto we Sizwe formed (1961); Rivonia Trial (1963–64); Steve Biko's Black Consciousness; Soweto uprising (16 June 1976); Biko dies in custody (1977); UDF (1983). |
| 10.6.3 | International pressure and the negotiated end of apartheid | Sporting boycotts, Gleneagles Agreement (1977); cultural boycotts; sanctions and divestment; US Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid Act (1986) overrides Reagan's veto; capital flight after 1985; end of the Cold War (Berlin Wall falls 1989) removes apartheid's anti-communist excuse; Frontline States and the OAU; Namibia independence (1990); P.W. Botha to F.W. de Klerk; 2 February 1990 — ANC/PAC/Communist Party unbanned, Mandela released 9 days later; CODESA talks (from 1991); Inkatha Freedom Party violence; 1994 elections, Mandela president; Truth and Reconciliation Commission (Desmond Tutu). |
Modelled exam question 1
To what extent do you agree that economic factors were the most important cause of the South African War (1899–1902)?
🔒 Model answer plan
See the mark-by-mark plan — for / against / judgement, with marking guidance — in study mode.
Modelled exam question 2
To what extent do you agree that international pressure, rather than internal factors, was the main cause of the end of apartheid?
🔒 Model answer plan
See the mark-by-mark plan — for / against / judgement, with marking guidance — in study mode.
Important: Do not write this topic as one long story from 1867 to 1994. Examiners give marks for ARGUMENT, not narration. For every essay, keep asking yourself 'so what — does this support or challenge the claim in the question?' A perfectly accurate timeline with no judgement at the end usually caps out in the middle mark bands.
What sparked the Mineral Revolution, and when? Diamonds were found near the Orange River in 1867 (leading to Kimberley), and gold was discovered on the Witwatersrand in 1886 in the Transvaal — together called the Mineral Revolution.
What was the Uitlander grievance, and why did Kruger refuse it? British migrants (Uitlanders) on the Rand paid most Transvaal taxes but needed 14 years' residence to vote. Kruger refused because enfranchising the now-more-numerous Uitlanders would let them vote Boer independence away.
What turned segregation into apartheid, and when? Segregation existed from Union (1910) via laws like the 1913 Land Act, but the National Party's 1948 election win under D.F. Malan turned it into a total, state-enforced system called apartheid.
What happened at Sharpeville and why did it matter? On 21 March 1960, police killed 69 pass-law protesters at Sharpeville. It convinced ANC leaders that non-violence alone would not work, leading to the formation of Umkhonto we Sizwe in 1961.
What did Steve Biko's Black Consciousness movement argue? Biko argued Black South Africans first had to reject the psychological sense of inferiority apartheid imposed before political liberation was possible — captured in 'Black is beautiful'. His ideas fed into the 1976 Soweto uprising.
What happened on 2 February 1990, and why was it a turning point? President F.W. de Klerk unbanned the ANC, PAC and Communist Party and announced Mandela's release; Mandela walked free nine days later, opening the way to open negotiations (CODESA) and the 1994 elections.
Know the throughline: minerals (1867/1886) to war (1899–1902) to Union (1910) to apartheid (1948) to resistance to negotiated end (1990–94). Have 2–3 pieces of precise evidence ready for BOTH sides of any 'to what extent' claim — examiners reward genuine argument, not one-sided answers. Use concepts explicitly: cause/consequence, continuity/change, perspectives, significance — naming them shows conceptual command.