By July 1936 Spain was split in two. A military coup against the Second Republic had failed to take the whole country in one go, so a brutal three-year civil war began.
**Nationalists**
- The rebel right, led by generals
- Backed by the Church, army and landowners
**Republicans**
- The government side
- A shaky coalition of liberals, socialists, communists and anarchists
The Nationalists won in April 1939. That result was not inevitable — the Republic controlled the two biggest cities, Madrid and Barcelona, and most of Spain's industry at the start. So a Paper 3 essay needs to explain why the balance tipped, not just that it did.
Four intertwined reasons: Historians usually group the causes of Nationalist victory into four factors: economic strength, the role of individual leaders, foreign involvement, and military/strategic factors. They reinforced each other — foreign aid, for example, only mattered because Franco used it with a clear strategy.
- Economic factors — the Nationalists held Spain's main grain-growing regions (Castile, parts of Andalusia) and could feed their army and cities better than the Republic, which relied on imported food it struggled to pay for.
- Role of individuals — General Francisco Franco proved a cautious but effective unifying leader, while the Republic was repeatedly split by rivalry between socialists, communists, and anarchists.
- Foreign involvement — Germany and Italy sent troops, planes, and weapons to the Nationalists on a much larger scale than the USSR helped the Republic.
- Military and strategic factors — the Nationalists had a single, disciplined command structure and experienced colonial troops, while Republican forces were often disorganised militias.
Keep these four factors distinct in your head, because a strong essay explains how they interacted — foreign aid alone did not win the war; it won because Franco combined it with a coherent military plan and a more unified political base at home.
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Role of individuals: Franco vs. the divided Republic
Franco was not the most senior Nationalist general in July 1936 — General Emilio Mola planned the coup, and General José Sanjurjo was meant to lead it. Sanjurjo died in a plane crash days into the rising, and Franco steadily out-manoeuvred rivals to become Generalísimo (supreme commander) by October 1936, later merging all Nationalist political groups into a single party, the Falange.
On the other side, the Republic never had one clear leader. Prime Ministers changed repeatedly, and socialists, communists, and anarchists often fought their own private battles — most dramatically the May Days of 1937 in Barcelona, when Republican factions turned their guns on each other for several days.
Nationalist unity
- Single commander (Franco) from late 1936
- One party (Falange) merged from rival factions
- Army, Church, landowners mostly aligned behind him
- Clear chain of command in battle
Republican division
- Frequent changes of Prime Minister
- Socialists, communists, anarchists distrusted each other
- May 1937 Barcelona: Republicans fought each other
- Militias often resisted central military control
Economic factors
The Nationalists controlled Spain's best farmland from early in the war, which meant steadier food supplies for soldiers and civilians. They also held key mining regions once the north fell in 1937, giving them iron and coal.
The Republic, by contrast, held the industrial cities but depended on food and fuel imports it increasingly could not afford, especially once its gold reserves ran low. Inflation and shortages wore down morale in Republican-held areas as the war dragged on.
Debate: was economics the deciding factor?: Historians disagree about whether the economic imbalance decided the war. A strong essay weighs how economics and foreign aid interacted rather than picking one cause in isolation.
Economics was decisive
- The economic imbalance eroded Republican civilian morale over three years.
Economics depended on foreign aid
- It only mattered because of foreign trade routes and blockade.
- Without German and Italian help controlling the sea and supply lines, Nationalist economic advantages might not have translated into victory.
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Foreign involvement: an unequal contest
Both sides got outside help, but not equally. Hitler's Germany sent the Condor Legion, an air force unit that gave the Nationalists control of the skies and famously bombed the Basque town of Guernica in April 1937. Mussolini's Italy sent around 75,000 troops plus aircraft and warships.
The USSR sent the Republic weapons, advisers, and tanks, but on a smaller scale, and Stalin often demanded gold in payment. Britain and France, along with the USA, followed a policy of non-intervention — officially refusing to arm either side — which hurt the Republic more, since it could not buy weapons openly on world markets the way a recognised government normally would.
- German aircraft (Junkers Ju-52), then the Condor Legion — Ju-52 transports airlifted the Army of Africa from Morocco in 1936; the Condor Legion (formed November 1936) then gave air superiority, including the bombing of Guernica (1937).
- Italian troops and equipment — the largest single foreign contribution to either side, though Italian units performed poorly at times (e.g. defeat at Guadalajara, 1937).
- Soviet aid to the Republic — weapons and the International Brigades (foreign volunteers) boosted Republican resistance but arrived less consistently and in smaller volume.
- Non-intervention (Britain, France, USA) — starved the legitimate government of the arms access a state would normally have, while Germany and Italy largely ignored the same agreement.
Military and strategic factors
Franco fought a slow, methodical war — clearing the north in 1937, then splitting Republican territory in 1938 by driving to the Mediterranean, and finally taking Catalonia and Madrid in 1938–39. Critics at the time wanted him to strike faster; supporters argue his caution avoided costly mistakes and secured territory permanently rather than risking it.
Republican forces, despite real bravery (e.g. the defence of Madrid, 1936–37), suffered from inexperienced militia command, rivalry between military and political leadership, and dwindling supplies by 1938.
Link the causes together: When you write "to what extent" essays, avoid treating these four factors as a simple list. Show connections: foreign aid gave the Nationalists air power AND economic resources; unified leadership let Franco use both efficiently; Republican division wasted whatever aid it did receive. That's the kind of linked reasoning that earns the top band.
Impact of Franco's regime, 1939–1975
Victory did not bring peace. Franco ruled Spain as dictator for 36 years, and the war's harshness carried straight into his peacetime rule — repression, one-party control, and a Church-backed authoritarian state that only slowly opened up economically from the late 1950s.