Enlightenment and Absolutism (1600-1800)

Ancient ideas (Greek/Roman reason), the Renaissance (humanism), and the Scientific Revolution (Copernicus, Galileo, Newton).

It proved mathematics and observation could uncover universal laws of nature — giving Enlightenment thinkers a model for applying reason to society and government.

It showed that a single religious authority (the Catholic Church) could be successfully challenged, setting a precedent for later dissent against political and religious authority.

Heavy taxation, costly wars and unchecked royal power gave writers a concrete target and motive to question the basis of a ruler's authority.

Locke (social contract), Voltaire (religious toleration/free speech), Montesquieu (separation of powers), Rousseau (the general will).

The idea that government exists by an agreement with the people, and rulers who break that agreement can legitimately be resisted.

Growth of colonial trade and banking (e.g. Bank of England, 1694), and Adam Smith's 1776 critique of mercantilism in favour of free markets.

Cities produced salons, coffee houses and printing shops where a growing literate middle class (bourgeoisie) could read, discuss and debate new ideas.

The Royal Society and Academy of Sciences (formal institutions for science), and Diderot's Encyclopédie (1751), which popularized knowledge widely.

New crop rotation methods (e.g. the Norfolk four-course rotation) and the enclosure of common land, which raised food output and supported population growth.

Science view: Newton's method of reason + evidence was directly copied by Enlightenment writers. Other-factors view: political grievance, religious precedent, and urban social change were equally necessary to spread and motivate the ideas.

1) Understand the claim, 2) Argument for, 3) Argument against, 4) Reach a substantiated judgement — never end on a fence-sit.

The belief that a monarch's authority comes directly from God, not from the people or law.

A monarch who keeps absolute power but claims to rule using reason, tolerance and reform for the public good.

Separation of powers — dividing government into legislative, executive and judicial branches.

The idea that legitimate government exists only with the consent of the people it governs.

Laissez-faire — markets function best with minimal state interference.

She overthrew her husband, Tsar Peter III, in a coup and took the Russian throne.

A convened body guided by Catherine's Nakaz (Instruction), which borrowed Enlightenment language on law — but produced no lasting law code.

A major peasant uprising against noble/serf conditions in Russia, crushed by Catherine's military force; Pugachev was executed.

Reorganised and centralized local government across Russia's territories, strengthening state control.

Confirmed and expanded noble privileges — enlightened rhetoric alongside a more rigid social hierarchy.

It gave women new intellectual arguments and visibility (e.g. Wollstonecraft, salons), but almost no enlightened despot changed women's actual legal status.

Whether she genuinely absorbed Enlightenment values within political limits, or used them as propaganda while serfdom worsened.

Frederick II of Prussia, king from 1740 to 1786; called himself "the first servant of the state."

He ended its use almost immediately after taking the throne in 1740, fully abolishing it by the 1750s.

Frederick's rational, uniform legal code for Prussia, begun under him and completed in 1794 (after his death).

He allowed Catholics, Protestants and Jews to practise their faith, saying people could "seek salvation in his own way" — though he kept the Lutheran church tied to the state.

Promoted the potato as a famine-resistant crop and drained the Oder river marshland (from 1747) to create new farmland.

Abolished it on his own royal estates but left it largely intact on noble (Junker) land to keep the army's officer class loyal.

Frederick's palace retreat at Potsdam where he hosted Voltaire and pursued music, philosophy and writing — evidence of genuine Enlightenment engagement.

Frederick's invasion of the Austrian province of Silesia, exploiting the succession crisis around Maria Theresa.

Austria and France, traditional enemies, allied against Prussia; Frederick struck first, starting the Seven Years' War.

Prussia nearly collapsed fighting Austria, France, Russia and Sweden, but survived after Russia's Empress Elizabeth died and her successor made peace.

Through the First Partition of Poland, negotiated diplomatically with Austria and Russia rather than through war.

Domestic reforms show genuine Enlightenment influence (law, toleration, agriculture) while foreign policy shows old-style dynastic conquest (Silesia, Poland) — the debate is how far "enlightened" really applies.