Democracy, authoritarianism and conflict in Spain (c.1920–2020)

Political instability (weak, short-lived coalition governments), social unrest (strikes, land hunger among landless peasants, regional separatism in Catalonia and the Basque Country), and economic weakness (an agrarian economy that had not modernised, huge inequality between landowners and labourers).

Army general who led a bloodless coup in September 1923 with King Alfonso XIII's approval and ruled Spain as a military dictator until 1930, suspending the constitution and parliament.

Early economic growth faded once the Great Depression hit in 1929; he lost the backing of the army; the king withdrew his support; and Primo de Rivera resigned in January 1930, discrediting the monarchy that had backed him.

Municipal elections showed huge support for republican candidates in the cities. King Alfonso XIII left Spain rather than risk civil war, and the Second Republic was declared on 14 April 1931.

Leader of the left-Republican government (1931–1933) who pushed reforms on land, the army, the Church, and Catalan autonomy; returned as Popular Front prime minister/president after 1936.

Leader of CEDA, the main Catholic-conservative party of the Second Republic; his movement's rise alarmed the left, who feared he wanted to dismantle the Republic like Dollfuss had in Austria.

1931–33: Azaña's reforming left-Republican/Socialist government (the 'Reformist Biennium'). 1933–35: the more conservative CEDA-Radical governments (the 'Right-wing Biennium', sparking the 1934 Asturias rising). 1936: the Popular Front's narrow election win.

1936 electoral alliance of Republicans, Socialists, and Communists formed to stop the right (CEDA and monarchists) taking power.

The Popular Front narrowly won more seats than the right-wing coalition (helped by Spain's electoral system, which rewarded winning coalitions with bonus seats), though the popular vote was much closer than the seat count suggests.

The coup only succeeded fully in some garrison towns; it failed to seize Madrid and Barcelona, where workers' militias and loyal police/army units resisted. Spain was split roughly in two, with neither side able to win outright — so a short coup became a prolonged war.

Franco commanded the experienced Army of Africa, and after General Sanjurjo (the coup's intended leader) died in a plane crash , Franco was named Head of State and Generalissimo by the rebel junta in Burgos in September–October 1936, unifying command.

One argument blames Republican/Popular Front policies (land seizures, Church attacks, disorder) for provoking a defensive coup. The opposing argument blames the right's refusal to accept legitimate reform and its readiness to use the army against an elected government. Both currents fed the crisis — Paper 3 essays should weigh them rather than pick one alone.

Economic factors, role of individuals, foreign involvement, and military/strategic factors — and they reinforced each other rather than acting alone.

He became Generalísimo (supreme commander) by October 1936, unifying the Nationalist forces and merging rival political groups into one party, the Falange.

A German air force unit sent to support the Nationalists; it gave them control of the skies and bombed Guernica in April 1937.

Around 75,000 troops plus aircraft and warships — the largest single foreign contribution to either side.

Britain, France, and the USA agreed not to arm either side; this hurt the Republic more, since Germany and Italy largely ignored it while helping the Nationalists.

Rival Republican factions (socialists, communists, anarchists) fought each other in Barcelona, showing the Republic's internal disunity.

They held Spain's main grain-growing regions from early in the war, giving them steadier food supplies than the import-dependent Republic.

The wave of executions and imprisonments Franco's regime carried out against Republicans after the war ended in 1939.

A policy of economic self-sufficiency; it caused stagnation, shortages, and the 'years of hunger' in the 1940s.

The Stabilization Plan opened Spain to trade and tourism, ending autarky and triggering the 1960s 'Spanish Miracle' of rapid growth.

It suppressed Catalan and Basque languages/identities while making National Catholicism the state ideology, giving the Church control over education and marriage law.

Nationalists: one commander (Franco) and one party (Falange). Republicans: frequent leadership changes and factional infighting, e.g. the May 1937 Barcelona clashes.

King Juan Carlos I — Franco expected him to continue authoritarian rule, but he instead backed democratization and defended it during the 1981 coup attempt.

A law passed by Franco's own parliament, at Suárez's urging, allowing free elections and legalising political parties — effectively voting the dictatorship's structures out of existence.

Lieutenant Colonel Antonio Tejero led an armed takeover of parliament; King Juan Carlos broadcast on TV ordering the army's loyalty to the constitution, ending the coup attempt.

A former Francoist minister who founded a legal, moderate conservative party (Alianza Popular, forerunner of the PP), giving the political right a democratic route instead of provoking a coup.

Agreements between government, unions and employers to control wages and prices together, stabilising the economy during the fragile early transition.

An informal agreement not to prosecute Civil War or Francoist-era crimes, which helped keep the peace during the transition but let Francoist officials avoid accountability.

González (PSOE, 1982–96): EEC entry (1986), NATO confirmed, built the welfare state. Aznar (PP, 1996–2004): euro adopted (2002), economic liberalization, backed the Iraq War (2003).

Legalized same-sex marriage (2005) and withdrew troops from Iraq, but presided over Spain during the severe 2008 financial crisis and mass unemployment.

A Basque separatist group that used violence for independence from 1959; it gradually declined and formally disarmed in 2011.

Basque violence (ETA) declined and ended by 2011, but Catalan nationalism grew stronger, leading to an illegal independence referendum and political crisis in 2017.

Franco dies (1975) → Juan Carlos backs reform → Suárez PM, 1976 reform law → 1977 free elections and Moncloa Pacts → 1978 constitution → 1981 coup fails → 1982 PSOE wins power peacefully.

A large new middle class from the 1960s economic boom, exposure to democracies abroad through tourism/emigration, a post-Civil-War generation, and a more reformist Catholic Church.