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🏛️ Institutional Barriers
Weak institutions are among the most significant barriers to development. Good institutions create the rules and trust that enable markets to function.
- Corruption — discourages FDI and reduces the effectiveness of aid.
- Weak rule of law — if property rights aren't enforced, entrepreneurs won't invest. If contracts aren't honoured, trade suffers.
- Political instability and conflict — war destroys infrastructure, displaces populations, and diverts spending from development to military.
- Lack of regulatory quality — unclear or excessive regulation creates barriers to entrepreneurship and formal business activity.
- Inadequate tax systems — inability to collect taxes means governments cannot fund public goods.
Institutions are the "rules of the game". Countries with strong property rights, low corruption, independent judiciary, and effective regulation consistently develop faster.
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🌍 Geography & Infrastructure
- Landlocked countries — no direct access to the sea raises transport costs, limiting trade (e.g. Chad, Nepal, Bolivia).
- Tropical climate — higher disease burden (malaria, dengue), lower agricultural productivity, higher infrastructure maintenance costs.
- Remote or dispersed populations — makes it expensive to provide education, healthcare, and infrastructure to everyone.
- Lack of natural resources — reduces export earnings. BUT resource-rich countries often face the resource curse.
- Poor transport infrastructure — roads, ports, railways — raises the cost of moving goods and limits market access.
- Unreliable energy supply — frequent power cuts reduce factory output and deter investment.
- Limited digital infrastructure — restricts access to information, financial services, and global markets.