For over a century, the Duchy of Burgundy was the most powerful state between France and the Holy Roman Empire. Its dukes were not independent kings but vassals of the French crown — yet at their peak they controlled more territory and wealth than the king they nominally served. Their story is one of brilliant accumulation and sudden collapse.
What was ducal Burgundy?: Burgundy was a duchy within France, but the Valois dukes expanded it far beyond its original borders by inheritance, marriage, and conquest — especially into the Low Countries (modern Belgium and the Netherlands), making it extraordinarily wealthy from cloth and trade.
Philip the Bold (Philip II, r. 1363–1404)
The first Valois duke. Gained Burgundy as a gift from his father, King John II of France, after fighting bravely at the Battle of Poitiers (1356). Extended Burgundian power by marrying Margaret of Flanders in 1369 — bringing the wealthy Flemish cloth cities under Burgundian control. He also dominated French royal policy during the mental illness of King Charles VI, making Burgundy a power behind the French throne.
Philip the Good (Philip III, r. 1419–1467)
The builder of the Burgundian 'state'. After his father John the Fearless was murdered by the Dauphin's men at Montereau in 1419, Philip allied with England and signed the Treaty of Troyes (1420), which disinherited the French Dauphin. He used the Hundred Years War to seize territory and assembled the most brilliant court in northern Europe at Bruges and Dijon. He founded the Order of the Golden Fleece (1430) to bind his nobles to him. By the time he made peace with France at the Treaty of Arras (1435), Burgundy controlled the Low Countries from Artois to Holland.
Charles the Bold (r. 1467–1477)
The last and most ambitious duke — and the one who destroyed everything his predecessors built. He sought to create a true kingdom stretching from Burgundy to the North Sea, fighting wars on multiple fronts. He clashed repeatedly with Louis XI of France and expanded east into the Rhineland and Switzerland. The Swiss Confederation dealt him a series of shattering defeats: Grandson (1476), Murten (1476), and finally Nancy (1477), where Charles was killed. Without a male heir, Burgundy reverted to France, while the Low Countries passed to the Habsburgs through his daughter Mary's marriage to Maximilian of Austria.
Bold built it, Good expanded it, Reckless lost it — PBS, PGS, CBS.
Why did Burgundy matter so much?: Paper 3 essays may ask about the significance of Burgundy's rise and fall. Key points: (1) Burgundy's alliance with England prolonged the Hundred Years War; (2) Philip the Good's defection at Arras 1435 was decisive in France's eventual victory; (3) Burgundy's collapse in 1477 dramatically strengthened both France (regaining territory) and the Habsburgs (gaining the Low Countries) — reshaping European politics for the next century.
| Duke | Reign | Key achievement | Key alliance |
|---|---|---|---|
| Philip the Bold | 1363–1404 | Married into Flanders; dominated French regency | France (Valois family) |
| Philip the Good | 1419–1467 | Treaty of Arras; Order of the Golden Fleece; peak Burgundian power | England (Treaty of Troyes 1420), then France (Arras 1435) |
| Charles the Bold | 1467–1477 | Failed bid to create a kingdom; killed at Nancy | Enemies: Louis XI of France; Swiss Confederation |
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After the Hundred Years War ended in 1453, France faced an internal crisis. The great nobles who had grown powerful during decades of war were unwilling to surrender that power to the king. France's struggle between royal authority and noble independence came to a head in the reign of Louis XI (1461–1483).
The War of the Public Weal (1465): A coalition of major French nobles — including Charles the Bold of Burgundy — declared war on Louis XI under the slogan of restoring the 'public weal' (public good). They claimed Louis was ruling tyrannically and ignoring noble advice. In truth, the nobles feared Louis was building royal power at their expense.
Louis held his nerve. He avoided total defeat at the Battle of Montlhéry (1465) and then used his famous cunning to divide the coalition — making separate deals with each noble, playing them off against each other. He agreed to concessions in the Treaty of Conflans but had no intention of keeping them permanently.
Louis XI's weaknesses
- Personally unpopular — cold, secretive, no chivalric glamour
- Faced a united noble front in 1465 (War of the Public Weal)
- Had to make concessions at Treaty of Conflans
- Chronically distrustful — alienated potential allies
Louis XI's strengths
- Brilliant at divide-and-rule diplomacy
- Cultivated merchants and the bourgeoisie to build royal revenue
- Waited patiently while Charles the Bold exhausted himself in war
- After Charles died (1477) seized Burgundy, Picardy, and Artois — tripling royal revenue
Louis XI's reign showed that the crisis of royal authority in France was not resolved by open battle but by patient political manipulation. By the time he died in 1483, France was more centralised and more powerful than at any point in the 15th century. His methods — spying, bribery, broken promises — earned him the nickname 'the Universal Spider' from his enemies, but they worked.
Comparing England and France: A common Paper 3 question asks you to compare royal authority in England and France in the 15th century. Key contrast: in France, Louis XI survived the noble challenge and emerged stronger. In England, Henry VI's weakness meant the crown itself changed hands repeatedly. France ended the period more unified; England ended it having just survived a dynastic civil war.
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The Wars of the Roses (1455–1487) were a series of civil wars fought in England between the House of Lancaster (whose badge included a red rose) and the House of York (white rose). Both claimed the throne through descent from Edward III. The wars were not continuous fighting — there were long periods of relative peace interrupted by sudden battles and coups.
The Lancastrian problem: Henry VI (1422–1461): Henry VI inherited the throne as a baby. He grew into a deeply pious, gentle, and politically incompetent king. He suffered a total mental collapse in 1453–1454, during which he could not speak or recognise anyone. He was dominated by favourites, most notably Edmund Beaufort, Duke of Somerset, whose failures in France (losing Normandy 1450, Gascony 1451–1453) discredited the Lancastrian regime.
Richard, Duke of York — Henry's cousin and the man closest to the throne without a son — was excluded from power. When Henry collapsed, York became Protector. When Henry recovered, Somerset returned and York was dismissed. The conflict between York and Somerset became the trigger for war.
- Dynastic weakness — Henry VI had no son until 1453, making York the heir presumptive and giving him a legitimate claim to power
- Loss of France — the end of the Hundred Years War discredited Henry's regime and created a pool of unemployed soldiers and aggrieved nobles
- Faction and patronage — royal favourites monopolised access to the king and royal resources, leaving other nobles shut out
- Financial crisis — the crown was deeply in debt; Henry gave away land and revenue instead of building royal wealth
- Weakness of royal authority — Henry could not control his great lords; 'bastard feudalism' meant lords kept private armies
Key Events of the Wars of the Roses
First phase: York vs. Lancaster (1455–1461)
The First Battle of St Albans (1455) opened the conflict — York's forces captured Henry VI and killed Somerset. After several truces and further battles, including Wakefield (1460) where Richard of York was killed, his son Edward pressed on. Edward won the decisive Battle of Towton (March 1461), one of the bloodiest battles ever fought in England. Henry VI fled to Scotland. Edward was crowned Edward IV.
Edward IV and the Readeption (1461–1471)
Edward IV proved a capable ruler — he restored royal finances and projected an image of strong kingship. However, he alienated his key ally, Richard Neville, Earl of Warwick ('the Kingmaker'), who defected to Lancaster. Warwick briefly restored Henry VI to the throne in 1470–1471 (the 'Readeption'). Edward returned from exile in the Netherlands, won the battles of Barnet (where Warwick was killed) and Tewkesbury (1471), and Henry VI died in the Tower — almost certainly murdered.
Edward IV's second reign and after (1471–1487)
Edward IV's second reign (1471–1483) was more stable. He rebuilt royal authority, improved crown finances, and kept the nobility in check. He died suddenly in 1483, leaving his 12-year-old son Edward V. His brother Richard of Gloucester seized the throne as Richard III, declared the boys illegitimate, and imprisoned them in the Tower (they were never seen again — the 'Princes in the Tower'). Richard III was defeated and killed at Bosworth Field (1485) by the Lancastrian claimant Henry Tudor, who became Henry VII. A final Yorkist rising was crushed at Stoke (1487), ending the Wars.
Impact on England: Government and Royal Authority
How did the Wars change English kingship?: The wars made English kingship more, not less, powerful in the long run — but through a brutal process of elimination. By 1487:
- The old aristocracy had been devastated. Battle deaths, executions, and attainders had eliminated most of the great noble houses that had challenged royal power. - Attainder (declaring a person a traitor by Act of Parliament, seizing their lands) transferred enormous wealth from nobles to the crown. - The lesson kings took from Henry VI was clear: weakness kills. Edward IV and Henry VII both built a more financially independent, more authoritative monarchy. - Parliament's role: the wars showed Parliament could be used to legitimise dynastic change — but this also reinforced Parliament's importance as an institution, which would matter in later centuries.
Negative impacts of the Wars
- Decades of instability and periodic violence
- Loss of English influence in France permanently
- Trade disruption, especially to wool and cloth merchants
- Political uncertainty undermined law and order in the regions
Long-term consequences
- Noble power significantly reduced by losses and attainders
- Crown lands and revenues much larger under Henry VII
- New, more centralised Tudor monarchy emerged (1485 onward)
- Henry VII's marriage united York and Lancaster, ending the dynastic dispute