Ming China (a transition case study, c.1400–1644)

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Zhu Yuanzhang, taking the throne name Hongwu, founded the Ming dynasty in 1368 after overthrowing the Mongol Yuan dynasty.

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China's educated ruling and landowning class, whose members earned their status by passing Confucian civil service examinations rather than by noble birth.

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It tested deep knowledge of the Confucian classics; passing it was the main route into government office, creating a loyal, learning-based ruling class.

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It roughly doubled during the Ming, reaching an estimated 150 million people by the late 1500s.

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Silk and blue-and-white porcelain (notably from Jingdezhen), exported widely in exchange for large inflows of silver.

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A Muslim-Chinese admiral who led seven huge Ming naval expeditions between 1405 and 1433, reaching as far as India, Arabia and East Africa.

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Confucian officials judged the voyages too costly, and resources were redirected to the more pressing threat on China's northern land frontier.

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Official long-distance voyages stopped and the building of large ocean-going ships was restricted, marking a deliberate turn inward.

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An Italian Jesuit missionary who reached China in 1583 and the capital, Beijing, in 1601, winning the Ming court's trust through learning and science.

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European mathematics, cartography (including new world maps) and help with reforming the official Chinese calendar.

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Confucianism remained the guiding state ideology; Christianity was tolerated cautiously but stayed a small, closely watched minority faith.

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Ming China's retreat after 1433 was more selective and partial (silver trade and Jesuit contact continued); Japan's sakoku from the 1630s was a much more complete and violent isolation.