Travel and transportation (750–1400)

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A padded harness resting on a horse's shoulders instead of its throat, letting horses pull far heavier loads without choking.

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It protected hooves from cracking on hard or stony roads, letting horses work longer and travel further.

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A canal system over 1,700 km long, built and extended under the Sui, Tang and Song dynasties, linking rice-rich southern China to the northern capitals for cheap bulk grain transport.

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A sturdy, high-sided cargo ship built in northern Europe from the 12th century, used heavily by the Hanseatic League for Baltic and North Sea trade.

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Its triangular shape let ships sail closer into the wind, giving far more control over route and timing than square sails alone.

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It replaced older side-mounted steering oars with a single rudder at the back, giving much finer, more reliable steering on large ships.

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It spread to Europe from China by the 12th–13th centuries, letting sailors hold a course in fog or open ocean far from any visible coastline.

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A large group of merchants and animals travelling together for safety against bandits and the dangers of desert or mountain terrain.

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A fortified roadside inn along trade routes like the Silk Road, offering food, water and safe lodging for resting caravans.

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Salt moved south from North Africa, and gold moved north from West African kingdoms, alongside enslaved people and other goods.

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The ruler of Mali whose 1324 pilgrimage to Mecca, with a caravan laden with gold, showed the vast wealth generated by trans-Saharan trade.

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Europe relied on rivers such as the Rhine and coastal shipping (later the cog); China built the Grand Canal, an artificial waterway linking south to north for cheap bulk grain transport.