Sustainable development
Sustainable development means improving people’s lives today while making sure future generations can also meet their needs.
Development is not just about money — it is about people, fairness, and Earth’s limits.
Development and GDP
For a long time, development was measured using GDP per capita, which shows the average income per person in a country.
- Higher GDP often means better access to food, healthcare, and education
- Higher incomes can improve living standards, especially in low-income countries
- Economic growth can create a positive feedback loop: growth → better services → more growth
GDP does NOT show inequality, pollution, or damage to the environment.
Why GDP alone is not enough
- Rising GDP does not always improve life for everyone
- Much economic growth benefits the richest people
- Rapid growth increases resource use and pollution
- GDP ignores environmental damage and ecosystem limits
A country can be rich but still unsustainable.
Sustainable development indicators
To measure sustainable development properly, we use indicators. An indicator measures one specific part of human or environmental well-being.
- Indicators measure health, income, inequality, pollution, population, and climate
- Indicators can be used at local, national, or global scales
- No single indicator gives the full picture
Examples of single indicators
- GDP per capita → shows average income
- Gini coefficient → shows income inequality (lower = more equal)
- PM2.5 → measures air pollution (lower = cleaner air)
- Extinctions per million species years → shows biodiversity loss
- Natural increase rate (NIR) → shows population change
- Average global temperature → shows climate change
For most environmental indicators, lower values are better.
Composite indicators
Composite indicators combine several indicators into one score to give a wider view of development.
- Composite indicators use index numbers
- They help compare countries more fairly
- They include social and economic factors, not just money
Human Development Index (HDI)
- Health → life expectancy
- Education → years of schooling
- Standard of living → income per person
HDI values range from 0 to 1. Higher values mean higher human development.
Planetary pressures–adjusted HDI (PHDI)
The PHDI adjusts the HDI by considering environmental pressure caused by development.
- Includes carbon dioxide emissions per person
- Includes material footprint per person
- Shows whether development is achieved at the cost of the environment
High human development is not sustainable if it causes high environmental damage.
In exams, explain why multiple indicators are needed — GDP alone does not measure sustainability.
Sustainability indicators
Big idea: A sustainability indicator is something you can measure to show how sustainable a place or activity is.
Track it over time → you can see if things are getting better or worse.
Common indicators
- Biodiversity — number and variety of species
- Pollution levels — in air, water and soil
- Human population size and growth rate
- Climate data — CO₂ levels and temperature
- Ecological, carbon and water footprints
Indicators work at any scale — a single school, a city, or the whole planet.
Citizen science: Ordinary people collect environmental data (e.g. counting birds, logging air quality on an app).
✅ cheap and covers huge areas ⚠️ data quality can vary.
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GDP, Green GDP & GNH
Big idea: GDP is the usual way to measure a country's 'success' — but it only counts money, not the environment. Newer indicators try to fix this.
Three ways to measure a country
- GDP (Gross Domestic Product) — total money value of all goods & services. ❌ It ignores pollution and resource loss, so GDP can rise while nature is destroyed.
- Green GDP — GDP minus the environmental costs (pollution, lost resources). A more honest picture.
- GNH (Gross National Happiness) — measures wellbeing, health, education and environment, not just money (famously used by Bhutan).
Exam link: "GDP can lead to unsustainable development" — because chasing GDP growth ignores the damage done to natural capital.
Planetary boundaries
Big idea: There are nine Earth systems that keep the planet stable and safe for humans.
Each has a boundary — a safe limit. Cross it and we risk sudden, possibly irreversible damage.
Some of the nine boundaries
- Climate change
- Biodiversity (species) loss
- Nitrogen & phosphorus flows (from fertilisers)
- Ocean acidification
- Freshwater use
- Land-system change (e.g. deforestation)
Several boundaries have already been crossed — including climate change, biodiversity loss, and nitrogen/phosphorus flows.
Uses: shows there are limits to human impact; warns policymakers. Limitations: focuses on global limits (not local fairness); still a work in progress as data improves.