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1375 flashcardsliterary work
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literary work
A novel, play, novella or set of short stories studied in full for the course. HL students study TWO, in English.
narrator
The voice that tells the story INSIDE the work. It is NOT the author — a first-person "I" is a narrator, not the writer.
author
The real person who wrote the work — distinct from the narrator.
plot vs structure
Plot = what happens (the events). Structure = how the author arranges those events for effect (order, flashbacks, timeframes).
theme
The big idea a work explores — usually an abstract noun (memory, loss, freedom). Inferred from what recurs, not stated outright.
protagonist
The main character, whose journey the work follows.
character arc
How a character changes across the work — from what they are at the start to what they become, and why.
narrative voice
WHO tells the story: a first-person narrator (an "I" in the story) or a third-person narrator (an outside "she/he" voice).
close-reading method
Detail → quotation → effect: name the detail, quote it, then explain what it does. Effect is where the marks are.
How many works, in what language? (HL)
Two literary works, studied in English (the target language). The oral is built on an extract from one.
lifestyle
the way a person lives — their daily habits and choices
(daily) routine
the set of things you do regularly each day
pace of life
how fast or slow / how busy daily life feels
to commute
to travel regularly between home and work or school
well-being
a state of being comfortable, healthy and happy
to lead a healthy life
to live in a way that is good for your body and mind
work-life balance
a healthy split between work/study and the rest of your life
to switch off / unplug
to stop using screens and relax; to take a break
stressed
worried and under pressure
sedentary
involving a lot of sitting and very little physical activity
How do you introduce an opinion in English?
In my opinion… / From my point of view… / It seems to me that…
Give two connectors to link ideas.
however (contrast), therefore (conclusion) — also: moreover, although.
Which register suits a blog for other students?
Informal — friendly and personal, addressing the reader directly.
Name the three Paper 1 criteria.
A Language (12), B Message (12), C Conceptual understanding (6).
health
the state of being well in body and mind
well-being
a state of being comfortable, healthy and happy
a balanced diet
a diet with the right mix of foods, nothing overdone
to exercise / to work out
to do physical activity to stay healthy
to be / keep fit
to be in good physical condition
sleep / to sleep well
the rest you get at night; to rest fully
mental health
the state of your emotions, mind and mood
fast food / junk food
quick, processed food that is often unhealthy
to look after yourself
to take care of your own health and needs
healthy habits
regular actions that are good for your health
How do you introduce an opinion in English?
In my opinion… / From my point of view… / It seems to me that…
Give two connectors to link ideas.
however (contrast), therefore (conclusion) — also: moreover, although.
Which register suits a blog for other students?
Informal — friendly and personal, addressing the reader directly.
Name the three Paper 1 criteria.
A Language (12), B Message (12), C Conceptual understanding (6).
belief
something you accept as true or feel sure about
value (values)
a principle or standard that guides how you live
faith
strong religious belief; trust in something
tradition
a custom passed down from one generation to the next
respect
to value and treat someone's views or rights as important
tolerance
the willingness to accept views or behaviour you don't share
honesty
the quality of being truthful and sincere
equality
the state of everyone having the same rights and status
to live together / coexist
to share a place or community in harmony
to judge (someone)
to form a critical opinion about a person, often unfairly
How do you introduce an opinion in English?
In my opinion… / From my point of view… / It seems to me that…
Give two connectors to link ideas.
however (contrast), therefore (conclusion) — also: moreover, although.
Which register suits a blog for other students?
Informal — friendly and personal, addressing the reader directly.
Name the three Paper 1 criteria.
A Language (12), B Message (12), C Conceptual understanding (6).
subculture
a group with shared music, style, hobbies or values
urban tribe
a youth subculture defined by a shared style or interest
to belong to (a group)
to be a member of a group and feel part of it
identity
who you are — the qualities that make you yourself
to express yourself
to show your thoughts, feelings or identity to others
a hobby / a passion
an activity you do for pleasure / a strong interest you love
style / look (aesthetic)
the way you dress and present yourself
to fit in
to feel comfortable and accepted in a group
to feel accepted
to feel welcomed and valued for who you are
(online) community
a group of people connecting over a shared interest, often online
How do you introduce an opinion in English?
In my opinion… / From my point of view… / It seems to me that…
Give two connectors to link ideas.
however (contrast), therefore (conclusion) — also: moreover, although.
Which register suits a blog for other students?
Informal — friendly and personal, addressing the reader directly.
Name the three Paper 1 criteria.
A Language (12), B Message (12), C Conceptual understanding (6).
mother tongue / native language
the first language you grew up speaking
language / tongue
a system of words a community uses to communicate
bilingual / multilingual
able to speak two / several languages
speaker
a person who speaks a particular language
minority language
a language spoken by a small group within a country
indigenous language
a native language of a region's original people
dialect
a regional or social variety of a language
to preserve / protect a language
to keep a language alive and in use
to be at risk of dying out
to be in danger of disappearing completely
to pass on (from generation to generation)
to hand something down from parents to children
a sense of belonging
the feeling of being part of a group or place
How do you introduce an opinion in English?
In my opinion… / From my point of view… / It seems to me that…
Give two connectors to link ideas.
however (contrast), therefore (conclusion) — also: moreover, although.
Which register suits a blog for other students?
Informal — friendly and personal, addressing the reader directly.
What is a theme (as opposed to a topic)?
A theme is a full sentence stating what a work says about a topic — a claim you could argue ("memory can trap us"), not a single word ("memory").
Topic vs theme — give the test.
If it is one word, it is a topic; if you can write it as a sentence with an arguable claim, it is a theme.
Motif
A repeated image, object or phrase (a locked door, the sea) a writer uses to build a theme.
Four ways a writer develops a theme.
Repetition, contrast, symbol, and key moments (turning points).
Symbol
A concrete object that stands for an abstract idea (a fading photograph for memory).
Embedding a quotation
Fitting a short quotation smoothly inside your own sentence, in quotation marks, then explaining what it shows.
Point, evidence, explanation
The pattern for supporting a theme: make the claim, give a short embedded quotation, explain what it shows.
Protagonist
The central character the work follows, whose choices drive the story.
Motivation
What a character wants and why — the desire or fear that explains their actions.
Character arc / change
How a character is different at the end from the start (proud to humbled); movement usually carries a theme.
Foil
A minor character whose contrast highlights a trait in the protagonist.
How do you link character to theme?
Show the theme through what happens to a character: name the character, point to a turning moment with a short quotation, then say what theme it carries.
leisure / free time
time when you are not working or studying
a hobby / a pastime
an activity you do regularly for enjoyment
to make the most of your time
to use your time well, not waste it
to sign up for (a club / a course)
to put your name down to join a club or course
to meet up with friends
to arrange to see your friends and spend time together
to play an instrument
to make music on the guitar, piano, drums, etc.
to play / do a sport
to take part in a sport regularly
screen time
the hours you spend looking at a phone, tablet, computer or TV
to switch off / unwind
to stop and relax; to take a break from work or screens
to have fun / to have a good time
to enjoy yourself
How do you introduce an opinion in English?
In my opinion… / From my point of view… / It seems to me that…
Give two connectors to link ideas.
however (contrast), therefore (conclusion) — also: moreover, although.
Which register suits a blog for other students?
Informal — friendly and personal, addressing the reader directly.
Name the three Paper 1 criteria.
A Language (12), B Message (12), C Conceptual understanding (6).
trip / journey
the act of travelling from one place to another
holiday(s) / vacation
time off spent travelling or relaxing away from work or study
destination
the place you are travelling to
accommodation
a place to stay (hotel, hostel, etc.)
to book (a hotel / a ticket)
to reserve something in advance
to pack
to put your things in a bag for a trip
mass tourism
tourism in very large numbers, often harming a place
to travel independently
to plan and travel on your own, not on a package trip
landscape / scenery
the natural features of an area you can see
(school) exchange
a visit where students stay with a family abroad and host them in return
How do you introduce an opinion in English?
In my opinion… / From my point of view… / It seems to me that…
Give two connectors to link ideas.
however (contrast), therefore (conclusion) — also: moreover, although.
Which register suits a blog for other students?
Informal — friendly and personal, addressing the reader directly.
Name the three Paper 1 criteria.
A Language (12), B Message (12), C Conceptual understanding (6).
life story
the account of the important events in a person's life
an experience
something that happens to you and that you learn from
a memory
something from the past that you remember
childhood
the time of your life when you are a child
an unforgettable moment
a moment so special you will always remember it
a turning point
a moment when an important change begins
to overcome a difficulty
to deal successfully with a hard situation
to miss (someone / something)
to feel sad because a person or thing is not with you
to grow up / to mature
to become older and more developed as a person
to be proud of
to feel pleased and satisfied about something you did
How do you introduce an opinion in English?
In my opinion… / From my point of view… / It seems to me that…
Give two connectors to link ideas.
however (contrast), therefore (conclusion) — also: moreover, although.
Which register suits a blog for other students?
Informal — friendly and personal, addressing the reader directly.
Name the three Paper 1 criteria.
A Language (12), B Message (12), C Conceptual understanding (6).
rite of passage
an event or ceremony marking an important change in someone's life
milestone
a significant moment or turning point in your life
coming of age
the point at which a young person is treated as an adult
graduation
the ceremony where you receive your diploma after finishing studies
quinceañera
a Latin American celebration of a girl's fifteenth birthday and her step into adulthood
to grow up
to become an adult; to develop and mature
to become independent
to start looking after yourself and making your own decisions
a turning point
a moment when an important change happens; a 'before and after'
tradition
a custom or belief passed down within a family or culture
unforgettable
so special or memorable that you will never forget it
How do you introduce an opinion in English?
In my opinion… / From my point of view… / It seems to me that…
Give two connectors to link ideas.
however (contrast), therefore (conclusion) — also: moreover, although.
Which register suits a blog for other students?
Informal — friendly and personal, addressing the reader directly.
Name the three Paper 1 criteria.
A Language (12), B Message (12), C Conceptual understanding (6).
custom
an accepted way of doing something in a group or place
tradition
a belief or practice passed down over many years
festival / celebration
a special event held to mark an occasion, often yearly
parade / procession
a public march of people through the streets, often in costume
traditional costume
the special clothing worn for a region's festivals
traditional recipe / dish
a food prepared the same way for generations
to gather / get together
to come together in one place, often as a family
heritage
the customs, history and culture a group passes on
roots
the place and culture a person or family comes from
to keep a tradition alive
to keep practising a custom so it does not disappear
How do you introduce an opinion in English?
In my opinion… / From my point of view… / It seems to me that…
Give two connectors to link ideas.
however (contrast), therefore (conclusion) — also: moreover, although.
Which register suits a blog for other students?
Informal — friendly and personal, addressing the reader directly.
Name the three Paper 1 criteria.
A Language (12), B Message (12), C Conceptual understanding (6).
migration / to migrate
the movement of people to live elsewhere / to make that move
to emigrate
to leave your own country to live elsewhere
to immigrate / an immigrant
to arrive in a new country to live / a person who does so
to settle in
to get used to a new place and start to feel at home
to adapt / adaptation
to change so you fit a new situation / the process of doing so
to integrate / integration
to become a full part of a community / the process of fitting in
culture shock
the surprise and stress of meeting a very different way of life
to miss (someone/something)
to feel sad because a person or thing is no longer near you
the language barrier
the difficulty caused by not sharing a common language
the host country
the country that receives and takes in newcomers
How do you introduce an opinion in English?
In my opinion… / From my point of view… / It seems to me that…
Give two connectors to link ideas.
however (contrast), therefore (conclusion) — also: moreover, although.
Which register suits an email to a friend?
Informal — friendly and personal, with a greeting and sign-off.
Name the three Paper 1 criteria.
A Language (12), B Message (12), C Conceptual understanding (6).
narrator vs author
The narrator is the voice inside the work who tells the story; the author is the real person who wrote it. Never confuse them.
point of view (POV)
The position the story is told from, and how much the narrator can see and know.
first-person narrator
A character tells their own story using "I"; we know only what they know — intimate but limited.
third-person omniscient
An all-knowing outside voice that can enter any character's mind, letting the reader see hidden truths and irony.
unreliable narrator
A narrator we cannot fully trust (they lie, misjudge or hide things), so we must read around what they say.
tone vs mood
Tone is the attitude of the writing towards its subject; mood is the feeling created in the reader. Both are built by word choice.
simile vs metaphor
A simile compares using "like" or "as" ("faithful as a dog"); a metaphor drops the "like/as" and says one thing IS another ("time is a thief").
personification
Giving human qualities to a thing ("the house held its breath") to make it feel alive and shape the mood.
name it, quote it, say the effect
The method for any device: name the technique, quote the text, then explain the effect it creates. The effect earns the marks.
diction and sentence style
Diction = word choice (formal vs colloquial); sentence style = long flowing vs short clipped sentences and their rhythm. Together they shape voice.
entertainment
things that amuse or interest people in their free time — films, music, games, shows
a show / a performance
an event put on for an audience — a play, a concert, a comedy night
a gig / a concert
a live music event
to stream / streaming
to watch or listen online without downloading
a (TV) series / a box set
a set of episodes of one TV show
to binge-watch
to watch many episodes of a series one after another
a video game / gaming
an electronic game; the hobby of playing them
the audience
the people watching or listening to a performance
entertaining
enjoyable and interesting to watch, listen to or play
dull / tedious
boring; not interesting at all
How do you introduce an opinion in English?
In my opinion… / From my point of view… / It seems to me that…
Give two connectors to link ideas.
however (contrast), therefore (conclusion) — also: moreover, although.
Which register suits a blog for other students?
Informal — friendly and personal, addressing the reader directly.
Name the three Paper 1 criteria.
A Language (12), B Message (12), C Conceptual understanding (6).
artistic expression
the way people communicate ideas and feelings through art
a work (of art)
a single piece an artist creates — a painting, novel, film, etc.
a painting / a canvas
a picture made with paint; the surface it is painted on
an exhibition
a public display of art, usually in a museum or gallery
a museum / a gallery
a building where art is shown to the public
a play (theatre)
a story written to be performed by actors on stage
a film
a story told in moving pictures; a movie
to move someone
to make someone feel strong emotion
to convey a message
to communicate an idea or meaning through a work
to appreciate art
to understand and enjoy the value of a work of art
How do you introduce an opinion in English?
In my opinion… / From my point of view… / It seems to me that…
Give two connectors to link ideas.
however (contrast), therefore (conclusion) — also: moreover, although.
Which register suits a blog for other students?
Informal — friendly and personal, addressing the reader directly.
Name the three Paper 1 criteria.
A Language (12), B Message (12), C Conceptual understanding (6).
the media
the press, TV, radio and online platforms that share news and information
the news
reports of recent events, in print, on screen or online
the press (digital / print)
newspapers and magazines, whether online or on paper
a journalist
a person who researches and reports the news
social media
online platforms where people post and share content with others
to get informed (about)
to find out what is happening; to keep up with the news
to share a post
to forward a message or article to other people online
to check the source
to make sure information is true and comes from a reliable place
a reliable source
a trustworthy place a piece of information comes from
fake news
false or misleading stories presented as if they were real news
How do you introduce an opinion in English?
In my opinion… / From my point of view… / It seems to me that…
Give two connectors to link ideas.
however (contrast), therefore (conclusion) — also: moreover, although.
Which register suits a blog for other students?
Informal — friendly and personal, addressing the reader directly.
Name the three Paper 1 criteria.
A Language (12), B Message (12), C Conceptual understanding (6).
device / gadget
a piece of equipment such as a phone, tablet or laptop
screen
the flat surface of a phone, computer or TV that shows images
app (application)
a program you run on a phone or computer to do a task
social media
online platforms where people share posts and messages
to browse the internet
to look at different websites, often without a fixed goal
artificial intelligence (AI)
computer systems that can do tasks that normally need human thinking
to code / coding
to write the instructions (programs) that make software work
tool
something you use to do a job; here, technology used for a purpose
to be connected / online
to be linked to the internet and reachable by others
to rely on / depend on technology
to need technology in order to do everyday things
How do you introduce an opinion in English?
In my opinion… / From my point of view… / It seems to me that…
Give two connectors to link ideas.
however (contrast), therefore (conclusion) — also: moreover, although.
Which register suits a blog for other students?
Informal — friendly and personal, addressing the reader directly.
Name the three Paper 1 criteria.
A Language (12), B Message (12), C Conceptual understanding (6).
innovation
a new idea, method or invention; the act of creating something new
invention — to invent
a new device or product someone has created — to create it
(technological) advance
a step forward; a way technology improves over time
artificial intelligence (AI)
computer systems that do tasks that usually need human thinking
discovery — to discover
finding something that existed but was not yet known — to find it
research — to research
careful study to find out new facts — to carry out that study
to solve a problem
to find an answer or a way to deal with a difficulty
sustainable
able to continue without harming the environment for the future
the environment
the natural world — air, water, land and living things
ethics — ethical
ideas about what is right and wrong — morally acceptable
How do you introduce an opinion in English?
In my opinion… / From my point of view… / It seems to me that…
Give two connectors to link ideas.
however (contrast), therefore (conclusion) — also: moreover, although.
Which register suits a blog for other students?
Informal — friendly and personal, addressing the reader directly.
Name the three Paper 1 criteria.
A Language (12), B Message (12), C Conceptual understanding (6).
relationship
the way two or more people are connected and behave towards each other
friendship
a close, friendly bond between people who are not family
to get on (well) with someone
to have a good, friendly relationship with them
trust
the belief that someone is honest and will not let you down
to support someone
to help and encourage someone, especially in difficult times
conflict
a serious disagreement or clash between people
to make up
to become friends again after an argument
the generation gap
the difference in attitudes between younger and older people
to fall out with someone
to stop being friends after a disagreement
loyalty
the quality of always supporting your friends
How do you introduce an opinion in English?
In my opinion… / From my point of view… / It seems to me that…
Give two connectors to link ideas.
however (contrast), therefore (conclusion) — also: moreover, although.
Which register suits a blog for your friends?
Informal — friendly and personal, addressing the reader directly.
Name the three Paper 1 criteria.
A Language (12), B Message (12), C Conceptual understanding (6).
community
a group of people who live in the same area or share something in common
neighbourhood
the area around where you live, and the people in it
neighbour
a person who lives near you
residents' association
an organised group of local people who work to improve the area
public space
an open area anyone can use — a park, a square, a community centre
community garden
a shared plot where local people grow plants together
volunteering
giving your time to help others without being paid
to collaborate / to pull together
to work together towards a shared goal
to lend a hand
to help someone, often informally
the common good
what benefits the whole community, not just one person
How do you introduce an opinion in English?
In my opinion… / From my point of view… / It seems to me that…
Give two connectors to link ideas.
however (contrast), therefore (conclusion) — also: moreover, although.
Which register suits a blog for other students?
Informal — friendly and personal, addressing the reader directly.
Name the three Paper 1 criteria.
A Language (12), B Message (12), C Conceptual understanding (6).
volunteering
giving your time to help others without being paid
a volunteer
a person who helps for free, by choice
a charity / an NGO
an organisation that helps people or causes, not for profit
the community
the group of people who live in the same area or share an interest
a (good) cause
an aim or project worth supporting
to get involved (in)
to start taking an active part in an activity or project
to make a difference
to have a real, positive effect on a situation or people
to give back (to)
to do something good for a community that has helped you
a donation
money or goods given to help a cause
to raise awareness
to help more people learn about an issue or cause
rewarding
giving a strong feeling of satisfaction, even without pay
How do you introduce an opinion in English?
In my opinion… / From my point of view… / It seems to me that…
Give two connectors to link ideas.
however (contrast), therefore (conclusion) — also: moreover, although.
Name the three Paper 1 criteria.
A Language (12), B Message (12), C Conceptual understanding (6).
education
the process of teaching and learning, especially at school or university
subject
an area you study, such as maths, history or biology
to revise
to study again what you have already learned, especially before a test
to take notes
to write down the key points while you read or listen
to pass an exam
to succeed in an exam
to fail an exam
to not succeed in an exam
timetable
a plan that shows when you do each lesson or task
scholarship
money given to a student to help pay for their studies
degree
a qualification you earn by completing a course at university
to enrol
to officially join a course, school or university
How do you introduce an opinion in English?
In my opinion… / From my point of view… / It seems to me that…
Give two connectors to link ideas.
however (contrast), therefore (conclusion) — also: moreover, although.
Which register suits a blog for other students?
Informal — friendly and personal, addressing the reader directly.
Name the three Paper 1 criteria.
A Language (12), B Message (12), C Conceptual understanding (6).
work placement / internship
a period of supervised work, often unpaid, to gain experience
job interview
a formal meeting where an employer decides whether to hire you
salary / pay / wage
the money you are paid for doing a job
(working) hours / schedule
the times you are expected to be at work
boss / employer
the person or company you work for
colleague / co-worker
a person you work with
to earn a living
to get enough money from work to support yourself
working conditions
the pay, hours and environment of a job
to gain experience
to learn useful skills by actually doing the work
entrepreneur
a person who sets up and runs their own business
remote / working from home
doing your job away from a workplace, usually online
How do you introduce an opinion in English?
In my opinion… / From my point of view… / It seems to me that…
Give two connectors to link ideas.
however (contrast), therefore (conclusion) — also: moreover, although.
Name the three Paper 1 criteria.
A Language (12), B Message (12), C Conceptual understanding (6).
law
a rule made by a government that everyone must follow
rule / regulation
an instruction that says what you may or may not do
right
something you are entitled to (e.g. the right to vote)
duty / obligation
something you are expected or required to do
citizen
a member of a country or community with rights and duties
justice
fair treatment of people according to the law
fair — unfair
treating people equally and reasonably — the opposite
to respect (the rules)
to accept and follow them
to take part / participate
to get involved in a decision or activity
coexistence
people of different views sharing a community peacefully
How do you introduce an opinion in English?
In my opinion… / From my point of view… / It seems to me that…
Give two connectors to link ideas.
however (contrast), therefore (conclusion) — also: moreover, although.
Which register suits a blog for other students?
Informal — friendly and personal, addressing the reader directly.
Name the three Paper 1 criteria.
A Language (12), B Message (12), C Conceptual understanding (6).
the environment
the natural world — the air, water, land and living things around us
climate change
the long-term shift in weather patterns, mainly caused by human activity
pollution
harmful substances in the air, water or land
to recycle
to treat used materials so they can be made into something new
waste / rubbish
the things we throw away because we no longer want them
to save (water / energy)
to use less of something, on purpose, so none is wasted
single-use plastic
plastic that is used once and then thrown away
renewable energy
energy from sources that never run out, such as the sun and wind
sustainable
able to continue without harming the planet
to protect nature
to keep the natural world safe from harm
How do you introduce an opinion in English?
In my opinion… / From my point of view… / It seems to me that…
Give two connectors to link ideas.
however (contrast), therefore (conclusion) — also: moreover, although.
Which register suits a blog for other students?
Informal — friendly and personal, addressing the reader directly.
Name the three Paper 1 criteria.
A Language (12), B Message (12), C Conceptual understanding (6).
human rights
the basic rights and freedoms that belong to every person
freedom
the right to act, speak or think as you want, within the law
equality
the state of everyone having the same rights and chances
discrimination
treating a person or group unfairly because of who they are
dignity
the right to be treated with respect, as a person of worth
justice
fair treatment; getting what is right and deserved
to stand up for (a cause)
to support and defend a person, right or cause publicly
a petition
a signed request asking those in power to do something
a peaceful protest
a public act to show you disagree, without any violence
to raise awareness
to help more people learn about and care about an issue
How do you introduce an opinion in English?
In my opinion… / From my point of view… / It seems to me that…
Give two connectors to link ideas.
however (contrast), therefore (conclusion) — also: moreover, although.
Which register suits a blog for other students?
Informal — friendly and personal, addressing the reader directly.
Name the three Paper 1 criteria.
A Language (12), B Message (12), C Conceptual understanding (6).
peace
a state of calm, with no fighting or war
conflict
a serious disagreement or argument, often a long one
dialogue
a conversation in which people exchange ideas to understand each other
coexistence / to live together
people of different views living side by side peacefully
respect
treating other people and their views as worthy of consideration
tolerance
accepting beliefs or behaviour you may not share
to argue
to disagree, often in a heated or repeated way
to reach an agreement
to come to a shared decision both sides accept
mediation
helping two sides settle a dispute by talking, with a neutral third person
a refugee
a person who has fled their country to escape war or danger
How do you introduce an opinion in English?
In my opinion… / From my point of view… / It seems to me that…
Give two connectors to link ideas.
however (contrast), therefore (conclusion) — also: moreover, although.
Which register suits a blog for other students?
Informal — friendly and personal, addressing the reader directly.
Name the three Paper 1 criteria.
A Language (12), B Message (12), C Conceptual understanding (6).
equality
the state of everyone having the same rights and opportunities
inequality
an unfair situation where some people have less than others
diversity
the presence of people of many different kinds in a group or society
discrimination
treating someone unfairly because of who they are
prejudice
an unfair opinion formed about someone before you really know them
inclusion
making sure everyone is welcomed and able to take part
to exclude
to leave someone out
rights
the things every person is fairly entitled to
the pay gap
the difference in pay between men and women doing the same work
to treat everyone equally
to give every person the same fair treatment
How do you introduce an opinion in English?
In my opinion… / From my point of view… / It seems to me that…
Give two connectors to link ideas.
however (contrast), therefore (conclusion) — also: moreover, although.
Which register suits a blog for other students?
Informal — friendly and personal, addressing the reader directly.
Name the three Paper 1 criteria.
A Language (12), B Message (12), C Conceptual understanding (6).
globalization
the way the world's economies and cultures become connected and more alike
(international) trade
the buying and selling of goods between countries
(global) brand
a product name sold and recognised all over the world
(fast-food) chain
a group of identical shops or restaurants owned by one company
local business
a small shop or company run by people in your own area
cultural exchange
people sharing customs, food and ideas between different cultures
identity
what makes a person or place who or what they are; their distinct character
inequality
an unfair gap between richer and poorer people or countries
consumption
the buying and using up of goods and services
to support (local)
to choose to buy from and help local shops and producers
How do you introduce an opinion in English?
In my opinion… / From my point of view… / It seems to me that…
Give two connectors to link ideas.
however (contrast), therefore (conclusion) — also: moreover, although.
Which register suits a blog for other students?
Informal — friendly and personal, addressing the reader directly.
Name the three Paper 1 criteria.
A Language (12), B Message (12), C Conceptual understanding (6).
ethics
the set of ideas about what is morally right and wrong
a value
a principle a person believes in, such as honesty or respect
honesty
the quality of being truthful and fair, not cheating or lying
responsibility
a duty to act well and take care of the results of what you do
a (moral) dilemma
a situation where it is hard to decide what the right thing to do is
conscience
the inner voice that tells you whether you are acting well or badly
a duty
something you feel you ought to do because it is right
fair trade
a system that pays producers a decent, fair price for their work
responsible consumption
buying and using things while thinking about their real effects
exploitation
treating people unfairly to profit from their work
to do the right thing
to act in the way you believe is morally correct
How do you introduce an opinion in English?
In my opinion… / From my point of view… / It seems to me that…
Give two connectors to link ideas.
however (contrast), therefore (conclusion) — also: moreover, although.
Name the three Paper 1 criteria.
A Language (12), B Message (12), C Conceptual understanding (6).
urban
to do with towns and cities (opposite: rural)
rural
to do with the countryside and villages
neighbourhood
the small area around your home where people live
public space
a place anyone can use — a park, a square, a market
green space
an area of grass, trees and plants in a built-up area
to commute
to travel regularly between home and work or school
traffic jam
a long line of vehicles that can barely move
pollution
harmful dirt or chemicals in the air, water or land
to lack services
to have too few shops, doctors or buses
depopulation
the loss of inhabitants when people move away from a village or area
to do up / regenerate
to repair and improve a run-down place
How do you introduce an opinion in English?
In my opinion… / From my point of view… / It seems to me that…
Give two connectors to link ideas.
however (contrast), therefore (conclusion) — also: moreover, although.
Name the three Paper 1 criteria.
A Language (12), B Message (12), C Conceptual understanding (6).
What is the goal of analysing a literary extract?
To say what the passage MEANS and HOW the writer achieves that meaning, then link it to the whole work — not to retell the plot.
Summary vs analysis?
Summary retells what happens; analysis explains what the passage means and how the writer's choices create that meaning and its effect.
What should you annotate in an extract?
Key images (and their feelings), shifts in mood or voice, who is speaking and how, and repeated words or ideas.
What is a 'shift' and why mark it?
A change in mood, tense, or point of view. Shifts almost always carry meaning, so they are worth analysing.
The 'what + how' method?
First the content (what the passage is about), then the technique (how it is written) — always tied to the effect on the reader.
Name four techniques to comment on.
Voice (who narrates and their tone), imagery (the pictures/senses), diction (word choice), and structure (how the passage is arranged).
What must every analytical point end with?
The EFFECT on the reader. Naming a technique with no effect ('there is a metaphor') earns nothing.
How do you structure a spoken extract analysis?
Place the extract (where it sits, what is happening), analyse two or three deep points with quotation, then link it to the whole work.
Name three common pitfalls in extract analysis.
Retelling the plot instead of analysing; naming devices with no effect; forgetting to link the extract to the whole work.
register
how formal or informal your language is — chosen to suit who you write to
informal register
warm, friendly, personal language used with people you know well
salutation / greeting
the opening line that addresses the reader, e.g. "Hi Sofia!"
sign-off / closing
the line that ends the message before your name, e.g. "Take care,"
conventions
the expected features of a text type (for an email: greeting, body, sign-off)
audience
the person you are writing to; it decides your register
to drop someone a line
to write a short, casual message to someone
to catch up
to share news after not speaking for a while
Name a friendly greeting for an informal email.
"Hi Sofia!", "Hey Marco," or "Dear Mum," — a first name with a warm tone.
Name an informal sign-off.
"Take care,", "Speak soon,", "Big hug," + your name.
What are the three parts of an informal email?
A greeting, a body (news / invitation), and a sign-off.
Which register suits an email to a friend?
Informal — warm, personal, with contractions and questions to the reader.
Why use contractions in an informal email?
"I'm", "you'll", "can't" make the tone natural and friendly — exactly the informal register.
Name the three Paper 1 criteria.
A Language (12), B Message (12), C Conceptual understanding (6).
blog post (entry)
a personal article published online for anyone to read
title / headline
the eye-catching line at the top, often a question
hook / intro
the opening that grabs the reader and introduces the topic
personal voice
a lively, opinionated 'I' voice — how a blog sounds
comments (section)
where readers reply below the post
Hi everyone!
a friendly, public greeting to open a blog
Today I want to talk to you about…
a natural way to introduce a blog's topic
And what about you — what do you think?
a question that turns the topic back to the readers
Let me tell you about my experience…
a phrase to start telling your story in the body
See you next time!
an upbeat way to close a blog and invite comments
Which register does a blog use?
Informal but public — address 'you' / many readers in a lively personal voice; never stiff or formal.
Name the five parts of a blog post.
Catchy title → hook/intro → body → question to readers → upbeat close.
Which criterion rewards the blog's conventions?
Criterion C (Conceptual) — catchy title, personal voice, question to readers, consistent register.
Give one blog hook and one blog close.
Hook: 'Hi everyone! Today I want to talk to you about…' Close: 'And what about you? See you next time, leave me your comments!'
(personal) diary
a private notebook where you record your days and feelings, for yourself
entry
one dated piece of writing in the diary
date
the day the entry was written — every entry begins with one
intimate register
private, first-person language; you write to yourself
Dear diary,
the classic diary opening that addresses the diary itself
Today has been a … day
a natural opening line that sets the tone of the day
I feel…
a phrase to name your emotion (happy / sad / nervous / frustrated)
I can't stop thinking about…
a reflection phrase showing the day is on your mind
Tomorrow I hope…
a phrase to look ahead and close the entry
Good night, diary.
a natural sign-off to the diary itself
Which register does a personal diary use?
Intimate — first person (I), a private reflective tone; no reader is addressed.
Name the five parts of a personal diary entry.
Date → opening (Dear diary) → what happened → feelings & reflection → looking ahead / close.
Which criterion rewards the diary's conventions?
Criterion C (Conceptual) — the date, "Dear diary", intimate register and reflection.
Give one diary opening and one diary close.
Opening: "Dear diary, today has been a strange day…" Close: "Tomorrow I hope… Good night, diary."
post (a post)
a short public message you share on social media
follower(s)
the people who see and follow what you share online
hook
the eye-catching first line that makes people stop and read
call to action (CTA)
a line telling the reader exactly what to do — share, tag, sign up
to share
to pass a post on so your followers see it too
to tag (someone)
to mention a specific person so they get notified
hashtag (#)
a keyword after a # symbol that groups posts by topic
register
how formal or informal the language is for a given reader
close / direct register
friendly, informal language that speaks straight to the reader (you/your)
caption
the short text written under a photo or video in a post
What are the four parts of a social media post?
Hook → Message → Call to action → Hashtags.
Which register suits a post to your followers?
Close and direct — speak to the reader as 'you', in short, lively sentences.
Name two typical calls to action in a post.
Share this post · Tag a friend (also: spread the word, comment below).
Name the three Paper 1 criteria.
A Language (12), B Message (12), C Conceptual understanding (6).
HL individual oral
The HL literature oral: you present on a short extract from one of your two studied works, then discuss it with your teacher.
literary extract (stimulus)
The short passage — from a work you studied — that the HL oral is built on.
PLACE (the extract)
Say where it comes from and what is happening at this point — briefly, no long retelling.
ANALYSE (the extract)
Show what the extract means and HOW the writing creates it (voice, imagery, tone, character, theme) — the heart of the presentation.
CONNECT (to the work)
Link the extract to the whole work — which central theme it belongs to and why the moment matters.
point → quote → comment
How to use evidence: make a point, quote a short phrase, then comment on its effect (answer "so what?").
narrator vs author
The "I" in a first-person extract is the narrator (a character/created voice), NOT the author who wrote the work.
How is the HL oral structured?
A short supervised preparation → a short prepared presentation on the extract → a discussion with the teacher about the work and its themes.
What three moves make a strong presentation?
PLACE the extract, ANALYSE it (what it means + how), then CONNECT it to the whole work.
What scores highest vs lowest?
Highest: analysis over summary, short quotes with comment, a clear link to the whole work, fluent literary language. Lowest: plot retelling, reading a script, no evidence, narrator/author confusion.
formal letter
a professional text to someone in a role you don't know personally — to request, complain, apply or suggest
salutation / greeting
the opening line: 'Dear Mr Patel,' or 'Dear Sir or Madam,'
opening line
the first sentence, stating why you are writing: 'I am writing to…'
body
the middle paragraphs that develop your message, one idea each
closing line
a polite sentence before signing off: 'I look forward to your reply.'
sign-off / valediction
'Yours sincerely,' (named) or 'Yours faithfully,' (Dear Sir or Madam)
regarding
about; concerning (a formal way to introduce a topic)
I would be grateful if…
a polite, formal way to make a request
I am writing to…
the standard formal opening that states your purpose
I look forward to hearing from you.
a standard polite closing line before the sign-off
When do you write 'Yours sincerely'?
When the greeting NAMES the person, e.g. 'Dear Mr Patel,'.
When do you write 'Yours faithfully'?
When the greeting does NOT name the person, e.g. 'Dear Sir or Madam,'.
Which register suits a formal letter?
Formal, polite and impersonal — no slang, no chatty exclamation marks.
Name the three Paper 1 criteria.
A Language (12), B Message (12), C Conceptual understanding (6).
a report
a formal text that presents facts/data on a topic and gives recommendations
aim / objective
the purpose of the report, stated near the start
findings
the facts or data discovered, often from a survey
survey
a set of questions used to collect data from a group of people
respondents
the people who answer a survey
recommendation
a suggested action, stated impersonally
register
how formal or informal the language is; a report is formal and impersonal
impersonal
written without I/you; uses passive or "it is…" structures
How do you open the Aim of a report?
"The aim of this report is to…"
How do you present a finding impersonally?
"It was found that…" / "According to the survey…"
How do you give a recommendation in a report?
"It is recommended that…" — never "I think you should…"
What is the standard report structure?
Title → Aim → Findings → Recommendations → Conclusion.
Which register suits a report?
Formal, neutral and impersonal — objective, data-led, no "I".
Name the three Paper 1 criteria.
A Language (12), B Message (12), C Conceptual understanding (6).
proposal
a formal plan put forward for others to consider and approve
to propose / to put forward
to suggest a plan or idea formally
aim / objective
what the proposal is trying to achieve
to justify
to give reasons that show why something is a good idea
benefit
a good result or advantage that a plan would bring
to implement
to put a plan into action
to approve
to officially agree to something
feasible
possible to do; realistic and practical
the authorities / management
the people with the power to say yes or no
What is the purpose of a proposal?
To put forward a plan, justify it with reasons, and ask an authority to approve it.
Name the conventions of a proposal.
Title, formal opening, aim, justified body, call to act, formal sign-off.
What register suits a proposal?
Formal and persuasive — full forms, no slang, polite requests to an authority.
How do you open a proposal formally?
"Dear [reader], I am writing to propose that…" then "The aim of this proposal is to…".
How do you close a proposal?
A call to act ("I kindly ask you to approve this proposal") + "Yours faithfully, [name]".
a set of instructions
a text that tells the reader how to do something, step by step
the title (in instructions)
a heading that says what the reader will make or do ("How to make…")
a step
one action the reader has to carry out, in order
the imperative
the command form of a verb: peel, add, stir, serve
what you need
the list of things or ingredients required before you start
a warning / a tip
advice to be careful or to get a better result
Before you start, you need…
the phrase that introduces the things required
First,… Next,…
sequence connectors that start and continue the steps
Then,… Finally,…
sequence connectors that continue and close the steps
Be careful with…
the phrase that gives a safety warning
Which register does a set of instructions use?
A command register — the imperative (peel, add, serve); precise, ordered and direct, never tentative.
Name the five parts of a set of instructions.
Title → what you need → numbered steps → tip/warning → encouraging close.
Which criterion rewards the instructions' conventions?
Criterion C (Conceptual) — title, list of what's needed, ordered steps, a consistent command form.
Give two sequence connectors for the steps.
"First,…" and "Next,…" (also "Then,…", "Finally,…").
Give an analytical verb for a mood the reader is made to feel.
“Evokes” — e.g. “The empty setting evokes loneliness.”
Analytical verb for weakening or overturning an expectation?
“Undermines” (or “subverts”) — e.g. “The cheerful ending undermines the earlier dread.”
The four-step formula for embedding a quotation?
Lead in → short quote → zoom on one word → say what it does.
Give a hedging phrase that frames a debatable point.
“Arguably” — e.g. “Arguably, the ending offers no real hope.”
Signpost word to introduce a contrasting idea?
“By contrast” (or “However”) — signals a shift or opposing point.
Signpost to link a new point back to an earlier one?
“This connects to...” or “Building on this...”
Raise the register: instead of “This bit shows...”, say what?
“This passage reveals...” — precise and literary.
What is the golden rule of literary discussion?
Every technique you name must be followed by its EFFECT on the reader.
an article
a written piece for a magazine, newspaper or website that informs and entertains a general reader
a headline
the short, catchy title at the top of an article
a hook (opening line)
the first sentence that grabs the reader's attention — often a question or surprising fact
the body (of an article)
the main part, where the points are developed
a conclusion
the closing part that rounds off the topic
register
how formal or informal the language is, chosen to suit the reader
semi-formal register
informative but lively — the usual register of a magazine article
the general reader
the wide, unnamed audience an article is written for
to engage the reader
to hold the reader's interest and keep them reading
to round off a topic
to finish by neatly tying the topic together
What are the four parts of an article?
Headline → hook → body (developed points) → conclusion.
Does an article have a greeting or a sign-off?
No — unlike a letter or email, an article has neither; it writes for a general reader.
Which register suits a magazine article?
Semi-formal — informative but lively, for a general reader, no slang.
Name the three Paper 1 criteria.
A Language (12), B Message (12), C Conceptual understanding (6).
opinion column
a short, personal newspaper/blog piece defending one point of view
thesis (in a column)
the main point of view the column argues for
to persuade
to make the reader agree with you
headline
the short, catchy title at the top of the column
rhetorical question
a question asked for effect, not for a real answer
to acknowledge the other side
to admit the opposing view has a point before answering it
register
how formal or informal the language is, chosen to fit the reader
to call for action
to urge the reader to do something ("the time has come to…")
How do you open an opinion column?
A catchy headline (often a question) + a clear first-person stance in the first line.
Name two phrases that state a strong stance.
"I am convinced that…" and "I firmly believe that…" — first person, persuasive.
Why acknowledge the other side in a column?
It shows balance and makes your own argument stronger: "Some will say… However,…"
How is a column different from a news report?
A column takes a side in the first person and persuades; a report is neutral and third-person.
Which register suits an opinion column?
Persuasive and first-person, addressing the reader and arguing a clear view.
Name the three Paper 1 criteria.
A Language (12), B Message (12), C Conceptual understanding (6).
review
a piece of writing that describes something and gives a judgement on it
to recommend
to tell someone something is worth seeing, reading or doing
plot / storyline
what happens in a story — the sequence of events
to be set in
to take place in a particular time or place
a strength / strong point
a good quality; something done well
a weakness / a flaw
a bad point; something that lets the work down
a spoiler
a detail that gives away the ending and ruins the surprise
gripping
so exciting that you can't stop watching or reading
predictable
easy to guess; with no surprises
overrated
praised more than it deserves
a cliffhanger
a tense, unresolved ending that makes you want more
What are the three jobs of a review?
Describe the work, evaluate it (strengths + weaknesses), and recommend it (or not).
Which register suits a review for a magazine?
Semi-formal and evaluative, written in the first person.
Name the three Paper 1 criteria.
A Language (12), B Message (12), C Conceptual understanding (6).
interview
a text where one person asks another a series of questions
interviewer
the person who asks the questions
interviewee / guest
the person who answers the questions
to introduce the guest
to present them and say why they are interesting
open question
a question that needs a developed answer (How…? Why…?)
closed question
a question answered with yes/no or one word
follow-up question
a question that picks up on what the guest just said
to thank the guest for their time
the polite closing convention of an interview
semi-formal register
respectful but not stiff — the usual interview register
quotation
the guest's exact words, shown in inverted commas
Name the three conventions of an interview.
Introduce the guest → question–answer pairs → close by thanking them.
Why are open questions better than closed ones?
Open questions (How…? Why…?) invite developed answers; closed ones get only yes/no.
Which register suits an interview?
Semi-formal and polite, kept consistent — no slang.
Name the three Paper 1 criteria.
A Language (12), B Message (12), C Conceptual understanding (6).
What is a speech (as a text type)?
A text written to be spoken aloud to an audience, addressing them directly.
What is the ONE essential feature of a speech?
It addresses the audience directly (greeting, "you"/"we", rhetorical questions).
Name the 5 parts of a speech, in order.
Greeting + hook → topic statement → signposted body → call to action → memorable close + thanks.
How should a speech to your own classmates sound?
Warm, energetic and direct — addressing them as "you" and "we".
Give a phrase to GREET the audience.
"Good morning / afternoon, everyone." / "Thank you all for being here."
Give a HOOK to open a speech.
A rhetorical question: "How many of you…?" / "Have you ever…?"
Give a phrase to STATE the topic.
"Today I want to talk to you about…"
Give two SIGNPOSTS for the body.
"First… Second… Finally…" / "Another important reason is…"
Give a CALL TO ACTION phrase.
"So I'm asking you to…" / "Let's…" / "Together we can make a difference."
Give a phrase to CLOSE a speech.
"Thank you very much for listening." — plus a short memorable line.
Why signpost and develop the body?
Signposts make points clear; developing each with an example earns Criterion B (message).
What makes a speech close MEMORABLE?
A short, repeatable line just before the thanks (e.g. "Every plate counts").
Which register is WRONG for a speech?
A flat, impersonal report tone with no greeting and no "you".
Name the three Paper 1 criteria.
A Language (12), B Message (12), C Conceptual understanding (6).
brochure / leaflet
a short printed text that promotes a place, event or service
slogan
a short, catchy line that sums up what you are promoting
headline / title
the eye-catching name at the top of the brochure
call to action
the closing line telling the reader exactly what to do
Discover…! / Come to…!
an energetic way to open a brochure (the hook)
What do we offer you?
a phrase to introduce the highlights / sections
When and where: …
a phrase to give the practical details
Don't wait any longer, sign up now!
a strong closing call to action
bullet point (✓)
a short item in a list, used to make a brochure easy to scan
persuasive register
language that 'sells' an idea and pushes the reader to act
Which register does a brochure use?
Persuasive and practical — short sentences, direct appeals, concrete details; not academic.
Name the five parts of a brochure.
Title/slogan → intro → sections with headings → practical details → call to action.
Which criterion rewards the brochure's conventions?
Criterion C (Conceptual) — title/slogan, bullet-point sections, call to action.
Give one brochure hook and one call to action.
Hook: "Discover…!" Call to action: "Sign up now!"
headline
a short factual title at the top of a report that names the event
lead (opening line)
the first sentence — answers who / what / when / where
the body
the middle paragraphs with details, figures and quotes
to attribute
to say where a fact comes from ("according to…", "the police said")
a source
the person or organisation a fact or quote comes from
a quote
the exact words of a person, attributed: "…," said the mayor.
the closing
the last line, usually about what will happen next
objective
based on facts, not on the writer's personal opinion
to take place
to happen ("the festival took place on Saturday")
a bulletin
a short news broadcast or summary of the latest news
Which register does a news report use?
Objective: third person, past tense, no personal opinion.
Name the parts of a news report.
Headline, lead, body (with figures and a quote), closing.
How do you introduce a fact in a report?
Attribute it to a source: "according to…", "the council said…".
Name the three Paper 1 criteria.
A Language (12), B Message (12), C Conceptual understanding (6).
essay
a formal piece of writing that argues a debatable topic and reaches a reasoned conclusion
debatable topic
an issue people can reasonably disagree about
argument
a reason given to support or oppose a point of view
for and against
the arguments on each side of a debate; the pros and cons
to weigh up
to consider both sides carefully before deciding
introduction / body / conclusion
the three parts of an essay: frame the debate, argue both sides, give a reasoned opinion
register (of an essay)
formal and impersonal — objective, no chatty greetings
to maintain (that)
to state firmly that something is true
to enforce (a rule)
to make sure a rule is obeyed
How do you open an essay?
Impersonally, framing the topic as a debate: "There is currently a debate about whether…"
Name two argument connectors.
On the one hand… / On the other hand… — also: however, moreover, therefore.
When do you give your opinion in an essay?
Only in the conclusion, and you justify it: "In conclusion, I believe that… because…"
What makes a body argument 'developed'?
It adds a reason or example ('because…', 'since…'), not just a bare claim.
Name the three Paper 1 criteria.
A Language (12), B Message (12), C Conceptual understanding (6).
work → I / he
I work · he works (add -s for he/she/it)
live → you / she
you live · she lives
play → we / they / he
we play · they play · he plays (vowel + y keeps -s)
study → he / she
he studies · she studies (consonant + y → -ies)
go → he / it
he goes · it goes (-o takes -es)
watch → she
she watches (-ch takes -es)
have → he / she / it
he has · she has · it has (irregular)
Make it a question: 'She works here.'
Does she work here? — use 'does' + the base form (no -s on the verb).
Make it negative: 'He likes tea.'
He doesn't like tea. — 'doesn't' + the base form 'like'.
When do you use the present simple?
For habits, routines, general facts, permanent situations and timetables.
When do you add -s to a present-simple verb?
Only for the third person singular: he, she, it (and singular nouns).
Why is 'Does she works?' wrong?
'Does' already carries the -s, so the main verb stays in the base form: 'Does she work?'
Where does an adverb of frequency go?
Before the main verb (I always read) but after the verb 'to be' (I am always late).
Present simple vs present continuous?
Present simple = habits/facts (I work every day); present continuous = action now (I am working now).
How do you form the present continuous?
am / is / are + the main verb with -ing (She is working).
Which form of 'to be' goes with each subject?
I am · he/she/it is · you/we/they are.
study → present continuous (I / she / they)
I am studying · she is studying · they are studying.
make → -ing form
making — drop the silent final -e before -ing.
run → -ing form
running — double the final consonant after a single stressed short vowel.
lie → -ing form
lying — a final -ie becomes -y before -ing.
How do you make the present continuous negative?
Put 'not' after the auxiliary: she is not (isn't) working.
How do you ask a present-continuous question?
Put the auxiliary first: Are you studying? · Is she working?
Name three uses of the present continuous.
An action in progress now, a temporary situation around now, and a fixed future arrangement.
What are stative verbs and what tense do they take?
Verbs of state (know, want, like, need, believe) — they stay in the present simple, not the continuous.
Present continuous or present simple: 'I ___ to school every day.'
Present simple — 'I go to school every day' (a permanent habit, not an action in progress).
Which time words signal the present continuous?
now, at the moment, currently, these days, this week — actions around now.
Spot the error: 'She cooking dinner now.'
The auxiliary is missing: 'She is cooking dinner now.'
Spot the error: 'I am wanting a coffee.'
'want' is stative — use the simple: 'I want a coffee.'
How do you form the past simple of a regular verb?
Add -ed to the base verb — the same for every subject: I/you/she/they worked.
work / play / open → past simple
worked · played · opened (regular: base + -ed).
live / decide / arrive → past simple
lived · decided · arrived (verb ends in -e, so just add -d).
study / try / carry → past simple
studied · tried · carried (consonant + y → -ied).
stop / plan / travel → past simple
stopped · planned · travelled (double the final consonant).
go / see / eat / have → past simple
went · saw · ate · had (irregular — no -ed; learn the form).
be → past simple
was (I/he/she/it) · were (you/we/they).
How do you make a past-simple QUESTION?
Did + subject + BASE verb …? — "Did you go?" (not "Did you went?").
How do you make a past-simple NEGATIVE?
subject + didn't + BASE verb — "I didn't see it" (not "I didn't saw it").
What verb form follows did / didn't?
The BASE form, with no -ed and no irregular change: did + go, didn't + have.
Name three time markers for the past simple.
yesterday, last week, two days ago — also: in 2019, when I was young, last night.
Past simple or present perfect with "yesterday"?
Past simple — a finished-time word needs the past simple: "I saw it yesterday", not "I have seen it yesterday".
Common error: "I goed home." — fix it.
"I went home." — "go" is irregular and never takes -ed.
Common error: "Did you went?" — fix it.
"Did you go?" — after "did" the verb returns to its base form.
How do you form the present perfect?
have/has + the past participle: I have finished, she has gone.
Which auxiliary goes with he/she/it?
'has' (he/she/it has). 'have' goes with I/you/we/they.
go → past participle?
gone (I have gone). NOT 'went' — 'went' is the past simple.
see / do / eat → past participles?
seen / done / eaten (I have seen, I have done, I have eaten).
write / take / give → past participles?
written / taken / given (I have written, I have taken, I have given).
When do you use the present perfect (not the past simple)?
When the time is NOT stated (an experience) or the time period isn't over (today, this week) — the past still connects to now.
When do you use the past simple instead?
When you state exactly when: yesterday, last week, in 2019, when I was ten.
for vs since?
for + a duration (for three years); since + a point in time (since 2020, since Monday).
What does 'already' show, and where does it go?
Something done sooner than expected, in positive sentences: 'I have already finished.'
What does 'yet' show, and where does it go?
Something expected but not done, in questions/negatives, at the end: 'Have you finished yet?' / 'Not yet.'
ever / never — what are they for?
Talking about experience: 'Have you ever flown?' / 'I have never flown.'
Fix: 'I have seen her yesterday.'
'I saw her yesterday.' — a stated, finished time needs the past simple.
Fix: 'I have lived here since three years.'
'… for three years.' — a duration takes 'for', not 'since'.
Make a present-perfect question: you / ever / be / to Italy
'Have you ever been to Italy?' — auxiliary + subject + participle.
How do you form the past continuous?
was / were + the -ing form: I was reading, they were waiting.
When do you use 'was' vs 'were'?
was with I/he/she/it; were with you/we/they.
What does the past continuous mean?
An action that was in progress (not yet finished) at a moment in the past.
Make the past continuous negative.
Add not: wasn't / weren't + -ing (I wasn't sleeping, they weren't listening).
Form a past-continuous question.
Put was/were first: Was she working? Were they waiting?
Spelling: write + -ing
writing — drop the silent final -e before -ing.
Spelling: run + -ing
running — double the final consonant after a short stressed vowel.
Spelling: lie + -ing
lying — final -ie becomes -ying.
Which tense for a long action interrupted by a short one?
The long action = past continuous; the short interruption = past simple. 'I was reading when the phone rang.'
What goes with 'while' and what with 'when'?
'while' + the long action (past continuous); 'when' + the short action (past simple).
Two main jobs of the past continuous.
Setting the scene/background, and two actions happening at the same time.
Can you use the past continuous for a finished action?
No — a completed action takes the past simple (I finished, not 'I was finishing and stopped').
Can state verbs go in the past continuous?
No — verbs like know, want, like, believe take the past simple: 'I knew', not 'I was knowing'.
'It ___ (rain) when we ___ (leave) the house.'
It was raining when we left the house — background (past continuous) + interruption (past simple).
How do you form the past perfect?
had + past participle (e.g. had finished, had gone) — 'had' is the same for every subject.
What does the past perfect show?
That one past event happened BEFORE another past event — the 'past-in-the-past'.
finish → past perfect (I)
I had finished (regular: had + -ed participle).
go → past perfect (she)
she had gone (irregular participle 'gone', not 'went').
eat → past perfect (they)
they had eaten (irregular participle 'eaten', not 'ate').
write → past perfect (he)
he had written (irregular participle 'written', not 'wrote').
Negative past perfect of 'see' (we)
we hadn't seen (had not + participle 'seen').
Question form: 'you / finish' (past perfect)
Had you finished? (invert 'had' and the subject).
What does the contraction 'd mean here?
'd + past participle = had (I'd gone = I had gone); 'd + base verb = would.
Which event takes the past perfect?
The EARLIER of the two past events; the later/main one stays in the simple past.
Name two marker words for the past perfect.
before, after, by the time, already, just, never — they often signal an earlier event.
Reported speech: 'I lost my keys' → he said…
He said he had lost his keys (past statement → past perfect in reporting).
Common error: 'had went' — fix it.
had gone — after 'had' use the past participle, never the simple past.
Do ordered actions ('I got up, ate, left') need the past perfect?
No — a clear sequence takes the simple past; use the past perfect only to step back to an earlier event.
How is the 'will' future formed?
will + the base verb (same for every person): I will go, she will help. Negative: won't.
How is 'be going to' formed?
am/is/are + going to + base verb: I'm going to study, they're going to travel.
How is the present continuous formed for the future?
am/is/are + the -ing form: I'm meeting, we're leaving.
When do you use the present simple for the future?
For timetables and schedules: 'The train leaves at 6:55.', 'The shop opens at ten.'
When do you use 'will'?
Predictions ('It will rain'), decisions made now ('I'll get it'), promises and offers.
When do you use 'be going to'?
Plans/intentions decided before now, and predictions based on present evidence ('Look at the clouds — it's going to rain').
When do you use the present continuous for the future?
For fixed arrangements with a time or place: 'I'm meeting Anna at six.'
will or going to — how do you choose?
Decide AS you speak → will ('OK, I'll do it'). Already decided before now → going to ('I'm going to do it tomorrow').
What comes after 'will' and 'going to'?
Always the BASE verb — never -s or -ing: 'she will go', not 'she will goes'.
Fix: 'She will to help you.'
Drop the 'to' — 'will' is never followed by 'to': 'She will help you.'
Fix: 'I will meet the dentist at four.' (it's booked)
For a booked diary time, prefer the present continuous: 'I'm meeting the dentist at four.'
Give the negative and the contraction of 'will'.
Negative: won't ('I won't be late'). Contraction: I'll, she'll, we'll.
"The film ___ at eight." Which form, and why?
starts (present simple) — it is a fixed timetable / schedule.
Name the four English future forms.
will (+ base), be going to (+ base), present continuous (am/is/are + -ing), present simple.
used to + base verb
a PAST habit or a PAST state that is no longer true — I used to smoke; we used to live abroad
would + base verb
a repeated, typical past ACTION only — every winter we would go skiing
Can 'would' describe a past STATE?
No. Use 'used to' for states: 'I used to have a dog' (NOT 'I would have a dog').
How do you write 'used to' in the NEGATIVE?
didn't use to — drop the -d, because 'did' already carries the past.
How do you write the QUESTION form?
Did you use to…? — no -d on 'use' (Did you use to play the piano?).
Which form for a SINGLE finished past event?
The past simple — 'Last year I broke my arm' (NOT 'I used to break my arm').
I ___ be afraid of the dark. (used to / would)
used to — 'be afraid' is a state, so 'would' is impossible.
Every Sunday we ___ visit my aunt. (one answer that always works)
used to — and 'would' also works, because it is a repeated action.
What follows 'used to' and 'would'?
The base form of the verb (the infinitive without 'to'): used to GO, would GO.
Spell the positive correctly: 'I ___ to play tennis.'
used (with -d): I used to play tennis.
A good way to add range when describing the past?
Open with 'used to' to set the scene, then use 'would' for the repeated details.
State or action: be, have, like, live, know?
States — use 'used to', never 'would'.
State or action: play, go, visit, walk, eat (repeatedly)?
Repeated actions — both 'used to' and 'would' work.
Fix the error: 'She didn't used to like coffee.'
She didn't use to like coffee — drop the -d after 'didn't'.
Zero conditional — form and use
if + present, present — for general truths: "If you heat ice, it melts."
First conditional — form and use
if + present, will + base verb — for a real future: "If it rains, we'll stay in."
Second conditional — form and use
if + past, would + base verb — for an unreal present: "If I had time, I'd learn the piano."
Third conditional — form and use
if + past perfect, would have + past participle — for an unreal past: "If I'd known, I would have helped."
Golden rule of the if-clause
Never put 'will' or 'would' in the if-clause: "If it rains…" (not "If it will rain…").
'If I were you…' — which conditional?
The second conditional; we use 'were' for all subjects to give advice: "If I were you, I would apologise."
Comma rule for conditionals
Comma when the if-clause comes first ("If it rains, we'll stay in"); no comma when the main clause comes first.
What does 'unless' mean?
'If not': "You'll miss the bus unless you leave now" = "…if you don't leave now".
Complete: "If I won the lottery, I ___ travel the world."
would (second conditional — an unlikely/imaginary present).
Complete: "If she ___ (study) harder, she would have passed."
had studied (third conditional — if + past perfect).
Spot the error: "If I would have time, I would help."
No 'would' in the if-clause: "If I had time, I would help."
Which conditional for a scientific fact?
The zero conditional — present tense in both clauses: "If you mix the two, you get a reaction."
How do tenses move as a situation gets less real?
Further back: present (zero/first) → past (second) → past perfect (third); the result climbs will → would → would have.
Why do conditionals help your exam mark?
They show a range of tenses and structures — a key part of Criterion A (Language).
What follows a modal verb?
A bare infinitive — the base verb with no 'to': 'should rest', 'can swim'.
Do modal verbs take -s in the third person?
No — 'he can', 'she must', 'it might'; never 'cans' or 'musts'.
How do you form a question with a modal?
Invert: Modal + subject + verb — 'Can you help?', 'Should I go?'. No 'do'.
How do you make a modal negative?
Add 'not' to the modal: 'must not / mustn't', 'cannot / can't', 'should not'.
Which modals express ability?
can (present) and could (past): 'I can swim', 'I could read at four'.
Which modals express permission?
can and may: 'You can leave', 'May I come in?' (may is more formal).
Which modals express possibility?
may, might and could: 'It might rain', 'That could be true'.
Which modals express obligation?
must and have to: 'You must stop', 'I have to work on Saturday'.
Which modals express advice?
should and ought to: 'You should rest', 'We ought to leave early'.
What is the difference between 'mustn't' and 'don't have to'?
mustn't = it is forbidden; don't have to = it is not necessary (you can choose).
Correct the error: 'She cans drive.'
'She can drive.' — a modal never takes -s.
Correct the error: 'You should to study.'
'You should study.' — a modal is followed by a bare infinitive, no 'to'.
Which modal is best for giving advice?
should (or ought to) — softer than 'must', which is a command.
Why are modals useful in opinion writing?
They turn a flat statement into an argument: 'we should…', 'we must…', 'we could…'.
How do you form the passive?
A form of "be" + the past participle (is cleaned, was built, has been sold).
Active → passive: what moves?
The active OBJECT becomes the passive SUBJECT; the doer goes after "by" (and can be dropped).
present simple passive: "They clean the office."
The office is cleaned.
past simple passive: "They built the bridge."
The bridge was built.
present perfect passive: "They have sold the car."
The car has been sold.
future passive: "They will announce the results."
The results will be announced.
modal passive: "You must clean the room."
The room must be cleaned.
Which part changes for the tense?
Only the form of "be"; the past participle stays the same (built / was built / has been built).
What is the "by-agent"?
The optional "by …" phrase naming the doer; leave it out if the doer is unknown or unimportant.
When should you choose the passive?
When the action matters more than the doer, the doer is unknown, or you want a formal/impersonal tone.
Common error 1
Dropping "be": write "The house was built", not "The house built".
Common error 2
Wrong participle: write "was written", not "was wrote".
Common error 3
Wrong agreement: "be" matches the new subject — "The books were sold", not "was sold".
Should you write a whole paragraph in the passive?
No — mix active and passive; too much passive sounds heavy and impersonal.
"I am tired," he said. → reported?
He said (that) he was tired. (am → was, I → he)
"I will help you," she said. → reported?
She said (that) she would help me. (will → would, you → me)
"I can drive," he said. → reported?
He said (that) he could drive. (can → could)
"We must leave," they said. → reported?
They said (that) they had to leave. (must → had to)
"Where do you live?" she asked. → reported?
She asked where I lived. (question word + statement order, no 'do')
"Are you ready?" he asked. → reported?
He asked if / whether I was ready. (yes/no → if/whether)
"Close the window," she said. → reported?
She told me to close the window. (command → told someone to + infinitive)
"Don't be late," he said. → reported?
He told me not to be late. (negative command → not to + infinitive)
What is 'backshift' in reported speech?
Moving the verb one step into the past after a past reporting verb: is → was, will → would, can → could.
What is the difference between 'say' and 'tell'?
'say' is used without a person (She said that…); 'tell' needs a person object (She told me that…).
How do time words change in reported speech?
today → that day, tonight → that night, tomorrow → the next day, here → there, now → then.
How do you report a yes/no question?
asked + if / whether + statement word order, no question mark: "Are you ok?" → She asked if I was ok.
How do you report a command?
told / asked + someone + to + infinitive (negative: not to + infinitive): "Sit down" → She told me to sit down.
Why does reported speech matter for IB English B?
It appears whenever a text reports a conversation or interview; using it accurately scores Criterion A (Language).
What is a gerund?
The -ing form of a verb used as a noun: swimming, reading. 'I enjoy reading.'
What is the (to-)infinitive?
to + the base verb: to swim, to read. 'I want to read.'
enjoy + ?
enjoy + GERUND: 'I enjoy reading.' (never 'enjoy to read').
want + ?
want + INFINITIVE: 'I want to read.' (never 'want reading').
After a preposition (at, in, of, about), which form?
Always a GERUND: 'good at cooking', 'interested in learning', 'before leaving'.
Name four verbs that take a gerund.
enjoy, avoid, finish, suggest (also: mind, keep, practise, miss, can't stand).
Name four verbs that take an infinitive.
want, decide, hope, plan (also: promise, agree, learn, need, would like).
stop + -ing vs stop + to-do?
'stopped smoking' = quit the activity; 'stopped to smoke' = paused in order to smoke.
remember + -ing vs remember + to-do?
'remember locking it' = recall a past action; 'remember to lock it' = don't forget a future task.
try + -ing vs try + to-do?
'try turning it off' = experiment to see if it works; 'try to finish' = make an effort.
Fix the error: 'She is good at to cook.'
'She is good at cooking.' — a preposition ('at') is followed by a gerund.
Fix the error: 'They decided going home.'
'They decided to go home.' — 'decide' takes an infinitive.
Which form follows 'suggest'?
A GERUND: 'suggested keeping a notebook' (never 'suggested to keep').
What decides whether you use a gerund or an infinitive?
The MAIN VERB in front (or a preposition) — not the subject. Identify it, then recall its pattern.
a / an — what is it?
the indefinite article: one of many, not specified (a book, an idea); first mention of something new.
the — what is it?
the definite article: a specific, already-known or unique thing (the book we saw, the sun).
a or an — how do you choose?
By the SOUND: 'an' before a vowel sound (an hour, an apple), 'a' before a consonant sound (a university, a book).
When do you use NO article (zero article)?
For general plural or uncountable nouns: 'Books are useful', 'I love music', 'Water is essential'.
a/an or the on second mention?
Introduce with a/an, refer back with the: 'I bought a jacket. The jacket was too big.'
Can you use a / an with an uncountable noun?
No — uncountables (advice, information, water) never take a/an; use 'some' or a measure word (a piece of advice).
much vs many — which is which?
much + uncountable (much time, much money); many + countable plural (many friends). 'a lot of' works for both.
this / that / these / those — what do they show?
Distance + number: this/these = near, that/those = far; this/that = singular, these/those = plural.
some vs any — basic rule?
some in positive statements and offers (I have some / Would you like some?); any in negatives and questions (I don't have any / Is there any?).
Possessive determiners — list them.
my, your, his, her, its, our, their — they replace the article: 'my phone', not 'the my phone'.
How many determiners can go before one noun?
Only one: 'my book' OR 'the book', never 'the my book'.
Fix: 'I got an useful information.'
'I got some useful information.' — 'information' is uncountable, so no a/an; use 'some'.
Fix: 'The people are kind here.' (meaning people in general)
'People are kind here.' — a general statement about people takes no article (zero article).
Fix: 'I don't have much friends.'
'I don't have many friends.' — 'friends' is countable, so 'many', not 'much'.
Subject vs object pronoun: "___ called ___." (he / I)
He called me. Subject does the action (he); object receives it (me).
Possessive adjective vs pronoun: this is ___ book; the book is ___ (my / mine)
this is my book; the book is mine. (my + noun; mine stands alone)
Reflexive pronouns — list them
myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves.
Which relative pronoun for PEOPLE?
who (or that in a defining clause): "the friend who/that helped me".
Which relative pronoun for THINGS?
which (or that in a defining clause): "the bus which/that was late".
Relative pronoun for POSSESSION
whose: "the author whose book won the prize".
Relative pronoun for PLACES
where: "the city where I was born".
Defining vs non-defining clause — the difference
Defining = identifies the noun, NO commas. Non-defining = extra info, commas. "that" only in defining.
When can you OMIT who/which/that?
Only when it is the OBJECT of the clause: "the film (that) I saw". Never when it is the subject.
its vs it's
its = possessive ("its tail"); it's = it is / it has. Never use it's for possession.
Combine: "I have a friend. She speaks Arabic."
I have a friend who speaks Arabic.
Why use pronouns and relative clauses? (exam)
They stop repetition and link ideas, raising Criterion A (Language) range and fluency.
Person after a preposition / 'and': subject or object?
Object form: "between you and me", "give it to him and me" — not "I"/"he".
Don't double the object — fix: "the song that I like it"
the song that I like (drop "it"; the object is already "that").
How do you usually make an adverb from an adjective?
Add -ly: quick → quickly, careful → carefully (a final -y becomes -i: happy → happily).
Adjective or adverb: describes a NOUN?
Adjective — a *quiet* room, a *difficult* exam.
Adjective or adverb: describes a VERB?
Adverb (usually -ly) — she sings *beautifully*, he works *hard*.
good (adjective) → adverb?
well — *she plays well*, NOT 'she plays good'.
How do SHORT adjectives form the comparative & superlative?
-er / -est: tall → taller → the tallest; big → bigger → the biggest (double the consonant).
How do LONG adjectives form the comparative & superlative?
more / most: careful → more careful → the most careful. Never -er.
happy → comparative & superlative?
happier → the happiest (final -y becomes -i).
good → comparative → superlative?
good → better → the best (irregular).
bad → comparative → superlative?
bad → worse → the worst (irregular).
When do you use a comparative vs a superlative?
Comparative + 'than' for TWO things (taller than); 'the' + superlative + in/of for one of a GROUP (the tallest in the class).
What does 'as … as' express?
Equality — *he is as tall as his brother*; 'not as … as' shows inequality.
Why is 'more taller' wrong?
It double-marks the comparative. Use either -er OR more, never both: just 'taller'.
Which verbs are followed by an adjective, not an adverb?
Linking verbs: be, seem, look, feel, sound, taste, smell — *the soup tastes good* (not 'tastes well').
What does the structure 'the … the …' express?
Linked change — *the more you practise, the better you get*.
at / on / in for TIME
at + clock time (at 7pm) · on + day/date (on Monday) · in + long period (in July, in the morning)
at / on / in for PLACE
at + a point (at the door) · on + a surface (on the wall) · in + an enclosed space (in the box, in Paris)
for vs since
for + a LENGTH of time (for two years) · since + a STARTING point (since 2024).
to vs at/in (movement vs place)
to = movement to a destination (go to school) · at/in = static location (be at school, study in school).
Prepositions of movement
to, into, onto, from, towards, through, across, along — show direction or motion.
through vs across
through = in one side and out the other (through the tunnel) · across = from one side to the other (across the road).
good ___ (something)
good AT — "good at drawing", "good at maths" (never 'good in').
interested ___ (something)
interested IN — "interested in photography".
depend ___ (something)
depend ON — "It depends on the weather" (never 'depend of').
afraid ___ / listen ___ / wait ___
afraid OF · listen TO · wait FOR — fixed dependent prepositions.
What is a preposition?
A small word showing a relationship of time, place or movement between a noun and the rest of the sentence (in, on, at, to, by).
during / until / by / ago
during a period · until a point in time · by a deadline · a time + ago (two days ago).
between vs among
between = two things (between the trees) · among = more than two (among friends).
First question when choosing a preposition
Ask: is it about WHEN (time), WHERE (place) or which DIRECTION (movement)? Then pick the precise word.
Connector for ADDITION (give two)
also, moreover, in addition, furthermore — to add a similar idea.
Connector for CONTRAST (give two)
however, but, although, on the other hand, nevertheless.
Connector for CAUSE / reason
because, since, as — they introduce WHY something happens.
Connector for RESULT / consequence
so, therefore, as a result, consequently — the effect of something.
Connectors for SEQUENCE / time
first, then, after that, meanwhile, finally.
Connectors to give an EXAMPLE
for example, for instance, such as.
Connectors to CONCLUDE
in conclusion, to sum up, overall, all in all.
What is 'cohesion' in writing?
The quality of a text whose ideas are clearly linked and flow smoothly from one to the next.
'because' vs 'so' — what's the difference?
'because' introduces the CAUSE (the reason); 'so' introduces the RESULT (the consequence).
How do you avoid repeating a noun?
Use a REFERENCE word: a pronoun (it, they, them) or a demonstrative (this, that, these, those).
Why not join every idea with 'and'?
It is monotonous and low-scoring; a RANGE of connectors lifts Criterion A (Language).
In 'The plan failed, but it was a good idea', what does 'it' refer to?
'it' refers back to 'the plan' — a reference word that avoids repeating the noun.
Which criterion rewards good cohesion?
Criterion A (Language) — a range of connectors used accurately.
Editing trick to boost cohesion fast
Write the ideas first, then add one connector between each pair and a pronoun for every repeated noun.
register
the level of formality of language, chosen to suit the reader and situation
formal register
distant, careful language: no contractions, precise/Latinate words, polite structures
informal register
close, relaxed language: contractions, everyday words, slang, a friendly tone
neutral register
a middle level — clear and polite but not stiff (a notice, a report, instructions)
contraction
a shortened form (can't, I'm, won't) — typical of informal English
phrasal verb
verb + particle (put off, find out) — usually less formal than a single-word verb
Formal greeting & sign-off
Dear Ms Carter, … Yours sincerely, / Kind regards,
Informal greeting & sign-off
Hi Sam! / Hey! … Cheers! / See you soon!
Make this formal: "Can you put off the meeting?"
"I would be grateful if you could postpone the meeting."
Make this informal: "I am writing to ask for help."
"I'm just writing to ask if you can help out."
Name three register markers.
Greeting/sign-off, contractions, word choice (everyday vs Latinate), phrasal vs single-word verbs, request shape.
What decides which register to use?
The reader and the text type stated in the task (letter to a company = formal; message to a friend = informal).
What is the classic register mistake?
Mixing registers — e.g. a formal "Dear Sir or Madam" closed with a slangy "Cheers!".
Which Paper 1 criterion most rewards correct register?
Criterion C (conceptual understanding) — right register, greeting and sign-off for the text type, kept consistent.
Give three ways to introduce an opinion.
In my view… · I believe that… · It seems to me that… (also: Personally, I think… / As far as I'm concerned…)
What two things make a *justified* opinion?
A claim (your view) PLUS a reason that supports it (because / since / as).
Which connectors introduce a reason?
because, since, as, given that, the reason is that…
Which phrases introduce an example?
for example, for instance, such as, take … (as an example).
How do you *soften* (hedge) an opinion?
I tend to think… / I'd say… / It could be argued that… — leaves room for other views.
How do you make an opinion *stronger*?
I'm convinced that… / There's no doubt that… / I firmly believe that…
How do you concede the other side, then answer it?
Admittedly / It is true that… , however / nevertheless… — name a counter-point, then rebut it.
Why is 'I'm agree' wrong?
'agree' is a verb, not an adjective — say 'I agree' (with you / that…), never 'I'm agree'.
What must follow 'It seems to me'?
A that-clause: 'It seems to me that the plan won't work' — don't drop the 'that'.
Give a phrase to disagree politely.
I see your point, but… / I'm not convinced that… / On the contrary,…
What's wrong with: 'Tourism is bad.'?
It's an opinion with no reason — justify it: '…because it raises rents so locals can't afford to stay.'
Name the five moves of a strong opinion.
Opinion phrase → reason → example → concede-and-counter → restate.
Why vary your verb of opinion (believe, feel, reckon…)?
Repeating 'I think' caps Criterion A; rotating the verb shows range of language.
Which skills test giving & justifying opinions?
Persuasive/discursive writing, the individual oral, and reacting to any reading or listening text.
How long does Paper 1 last at SL?
1 hour 15 minutes.
What is Paper 1 worth in your final grade (SL)?
25% of your final grade.
How many words should you write in Paper 1?
250–400 words.
How many tasks do you write in Paper 1?
Just one — you choose 1 of 3.
What are the five themes English B is built on?
Identities, Experiences, Human ingenuity, Social organisation, Sharing the planet.
text type
the kind of text you must write — a blog, email, article, speech, set of guidelines…
register
how formal or informal your language is, chosen to fit the audience
conventions
the expected features of a text type (title, greeting, sign-off, headline…)
audience
the reader you are writing for, which decides your register and tone
What are the five exam steps for Paper 1?
Read all three → Choose for ideas → Identify text type/audience/register → Plan → Write & check.
How should you choose between the three tasks?
Pick the one you have the most ideas and vocabulary for — not the first you see.
What three criteria is Paper 1 marked on, and the total?
A Language /12, B Message /12, C Conceptual understanding /6 = /30.
On Criterion B (Message), what caps your mark?
Missing any part of the prompt — you must cover every bullet AND develop each idea.
What does Criterion C (Conceptual) reward?
The right text type, register and tone for the audience, plus that text type's conventions.
How many marks is Paper 1 (SL) worth, and on how many criteria?
Out of 30, on three criteria (A, B and C).
What does Criterion A reward, and how many marks?
Criterion A — Language /12: the range and accuracy of your vocabulary and grammar.
What does Criterion B reward, and how many marks?
Criterion B — Message /12: covering every part of the task, developing each idea, and organising it logically.
What does Criterion C reward, and how many marks?
Criterion C — Conceptual understanding /6: the right text type, register and tone for the reader, with its conventions.
How many marks is each criterion worth in total?
A Language /12 · B Message /12 · C Conceptual /6 = /30.
register
how formal or informal your language is — matched to who is reading
conventions
the features a text type needs (a blog title, an email greeting and sign-off, a headline…)
cohesion
how connectors and paragraphs link your ideas smoothly
How do you earn marks on Criterion A (Language)?
Use varied, task-appropriate vocabulary and a mix of basic and more complex grammar, accurately — an idiom can reach the top band.
How do you earn marks on Criterion B (Message)?
Cover every bullet of the prompt, develop each idea with a detail/example, and organise it logically.
How do you earn marks on Criterion C (Conceptual)?
Choose the right text type, use its conventions, and match register and tone to the reader.
Which criterion does a blog title or an email sign-off earn?
Criterion C — Conceptual understanding (a text-type convention).
Why is Criterion C the cheapest to protect?
The right form, greeting, sign-off and register cost nothing and bank up to 6 marks — but the wrong form throws them away.
What happens to Criterion B if you miss a bullet in the prompt?
Missing a bullet caps your Message mark — always cover EVERY part of the task.
the plan
your quick outline jotted down before you write
the prompt / task
the question that tells you what to write and for whom
a key idea
one of the points you develop in your answer
the hook
an opening line that grabs the reader's attention
the sign-off
the closing line (Take care, Best wishes, Yours faithfully…)
a connector
a linking word that joins ideas (however, therefore, what's more…)
to develop an idea
to expand a point with detail and examples
What five things does a good plan contain?
Text type, 3–4 key ideas (one per bullet), a hook, a sign-off and useful vocab/connectors.
How long should you spend planning Paper 1?
About two minutes before you start writing.
What are the four planning moves?
Decode → Brainstorm → Order → Note vocab.
Which criterion does a clear plan help most, and why?
Criterion B (Message) — it gives an organised answer that covers every bullet and develops each idea.
Why give every prompt bullet its own point?
Missing a bullet caps Criterion B, however good your English — one point per bullet keeps the prompt fully covered.
Should you write your plan in full sentences?
No — note form, five short lines; the plan is scaffolding for you, not text for the examiner.
Name the three Paper 1 SL criteria and their marks.
A Language /12, B Message /12, C Conceptual understanding /6 = /30.
text type
the form you are told to write — a blog, an email, an article, a speech…
conventions
the features that mark out a text type (a headline, a greeting, a sign-off…)
register
how formal or informal your language is, set by the text type and the reader
What conventions does a blog need?
A catchy title, direct address to the reader and a sign-off; semi-formal register.
What conventions does a formal letter need?
A formal greeting (Dear Sir/Madam), clear paragraphs and a formal sign-off (Yours faithfully); formal register.
What conventions does an article need?
A headline, subheadings, an opening hook and a conclusion; semi-formal register.
What conventions does a speech need?
A greeting to the audience, rhetorical questions and a call to action; register depends on the audience.
personal text types
private/informal forms: an email to a friend, a blog, a diary entry
professional text types
formal forms: a formal letter, a report, a proposal
mass-media text types
forms for a wide audience: an article, a review, an interview, a speech, a leaflet
What are the four moves for the text type?
Find the named form → Recall its conventions → pick the Register → Frame the opening & closing.
Why not write a generic essay in Paper 1?
The task names a specific form; a generic essay misses its conventions and loses Criterion C.
Where do you find the text type in a prompt?
It's almost always printed in the prompt — blog, email, article, speech — so underline it first.
Which criterion does the right text type protect?
Criterion C (Conceptual understanding) — the conventions and register of the named form.
register
how formal or informal the language is
audience / reader
the person you write to — the one who sets the register
informal register
relaxed, friendly English for friends and peers ("Hi", contractions)
formal register
polite, careful English for officials, teachers and companies ("Dear…", no slang)
greeting
how a text opens ("Hi Sam" informal vs "Dear Mr Patel" formal)
sign-off
how a text closes ("See you soon" informal vs "Yours faithfully" formal)
What markers signal the informal register?
"Hi…", contractions (I'm, can't) and a warm sign-off like "See you soon".
What markers signal the formal register?
"Dear Sir or Madam", no contractions or slang, and "Yours faithfully" / "Yours sincerely".
Which register do you use for a company or a teacher?
The formal register.
What are the four moves for register?
Identify the reader → Choose formal or informal → Match greeting/sign-off/words → Keep it consistent.
Which markers move together when you switch register?
The greeting, the request/word choices, the thanks and the sign-off — change all four or none.
What's the most common register mistake?
Mixing formal and informal in the same answer — usually hidden in contractions, slang and the sign-off.
Which criterion does a consistent register protect?
Criterion C (Conceptual understanding) — register matched to the reader and held throughout.
How do you catch register drift before finishing?
Re-read for contractions, slang and a clashing sign-off, checking each against your chosen register.
connector (linker)
a linking word or phrase that joins ideas (moreover, however, because)
cohesion
how smoothly ideas link together and flow across a text
moreover / in addition / also
connectors of ADDITION — adding an idea in the same direction
however / although / on the other hand
connectors of CONTRAST — setting one idea against another
because / since / as
connectors of CAUSE — giving the reason for something
therefore / so / as a result
connectors of CONSEQUENCE — showing the result of something
first / then / finally
connectors of SEQUENCE — ordering ideas or events
for example / for instance / such as
connectors that give EXAMPLES — illustrating a point
What are the four steps to build a cohesive paragraph?
Topic sentence → Develop with a connector → Add an example → Conclude or transition.
Why use a range of different connectors?
Repeating "and" or one linker caps Criterion A; variety shows range of language.
How do connectors help your IB criteria?
They lift Criterion A (range/accuracy of language) and help Criterion B (organised, clear ideas).
Why is "Because…" as a standalone sentence an error, and what fixes it?
It leaves a fragment; open a result sentence with "Therefore,…" and keep "because" inside a sentence.
Which connector opens a sentence to show a RESULT/consequence?
"Therefore,…" (also "As a result,…" or "So…").
Name the three Paper 1 criteria and their marks.
A Language /12, B Message /12, C Conceptual understanding /6 — total /30.
register
how formal or informal your language is; match it to the reader and never mix levels
word count / length
the word range the task asks for; too short caps Criterion B
verb tense
present, past or future; keep it correct and consistent for the task
text type
blog, email, article, speech…; you must use its conventions
to develop an idea
to expand a point with a reason and an example, not just name it
subject–verb agreement
the verb must match its subject (he goes, they go)
bullet point (prompt point)
each instruction in the task; you must answer every one
Which criterion does mixing/wrong register hit?
Criterion C (conventions and register).
Which criterion does an answer that is too short hit?
Criterion B (message) — you don't reach or develop the ideas.
Which criterion do verb-tense and agreement slips hit?
Criterion A (language).
What are the five steps of the final-check routine?
Bullets → Length → Register → Conventions → Verbs.
How long should you reserve for the final check?
About five minutes at the end of the exam.
What's the fix for ignoring the text type?
Use its conventions — title/headline, greeting, sign-off, paragraphs.
What's the fix for listing ideas without developing them?
Develop 2–3 ideas with a reason and an example each.
How many recordings are in Paper 2 Listening (SL)?
Three (3) recordings, based on the course themes.
How many times is each Listening recording played?
Twice — once for the gist, once for the details.
How many marks is the Listening section worth (SL)?
About 25 marks (around 45 minutes).
How is the Listening section marked?
Objectively, against an answer key — the answer is right or wrong, not graded on language.
Name the Paper 2 Listening question types.
Multiple choice; true/false + justify; fill the gaps; short answer.
What does 'listening comprehension' mean?
Understanding spoken English well enough to answer questions on it.
What is 'a recording' (or clip) in the exam?
The piece of audio you listen to and answer questions on.
What does 'true/false + justify' require?
Decide if a statement is true or false AND quote the words from the text that prove it.
How much of the SL grade is Paper 2 worth, and what does it test?
50% — it is the receptive-skills paper: Listening + Reading.
What is the five-step listening technique?
Read the questions → Predict the vocabulary → First listen for the gist → Second listen for the details → Check spelling & blanks.
Why are you allowed to hear each recording twice?
So you can get the general idea (gist) on the first play and catch the specific details on the second.
What should you do in the pause before a recording?
Read the questions and predict the vocabulary you'll hear, so you know exactly what to listen for.
Why is hearing a question-word in the audio NOT enough?
It may be a trap — the same word is often planted in a wrong place. Listen for the meaning and watch for synonyms.
Why write short answers in Listening, not long ones?
It's marked objectively on correctness — a short, accurate answer scores; a long, rambling one risks burying or losing the point.
What is a multiple-choice listening question?
A question with a short list of options (A, B, C…) where exactly one is correct; you pick it from what you hear.
How is a listening multiple-choice item marked?
Right or wrong against an answer key — one mark, no half marks.
How many options are correct in a multiple-choice item?
Exactly one.
What is a 'distractor' in multiple choice?
A plausible wrong option, often repeating a word you hear but twisting the meaning.
What does 'to mark an option' mean?
To select (tick) the one option you choose as your answer.
What does 'meaning' refer to in a listening MCQ?
What the whole sentence actually says — not just one word that happens to match an option.
What does 'a single answer' mean in multiple choice?
Only one option is correct.
How many marks is each multiple-choice item worth?
One mark, awarded all-or-nothing.
How many times do you usually hear each listening clip?
Twice — use the second play to confirm your answer.
What is the five-step method for a listening MCQ?
Read all the options → Predict what each could sound like → Listen for the MEANING → Eliminate the distractors → Choose one and move on.
Why should you read all the options before the audio?
So you know what they differ on and can predict the vocabulary, which lets you eliminate distractors as you listen.
Why is hearing a word from an option NOT enough to choose it?
It may be the word-match trap — the same word is often planted in a wrong option. Judge by meaning, not by a single word.
Why eliminate distractors rather than hunt for the answer?
Ruling out the options the recording contradicts is faster and narrows the choice, making the right option clear.
Should you change a confident answer on the second listen?
No — use the second listen to confirm; only change it if you clearly misheard the first time.
What is a true/false + justify question?
A statement you mark True or False AND justify with words from the recording.
In T/F + justify, what do you score for a correct True/False with no justification?
Nothing — True/False alone earns no marks.
What does 'to justify' mean in this question type?
To prove your true/false choice with the relevant words from the recording.
What does 'with words from the recording' mean?
Your justification must use the speaker's own words, not your own ideas.
What is 'the justification'?
The exact proving words you quote to support your True/False.
What is a 'quote' in this context?
The exact words from the recording used as proof.
What is the 'relevant detail' in a justification?
The exact part of the recording that proves your True/False — not the whole sentence and not an unrelated line.
How many parts must be correct to score a T/F + justify mark?
Both — the True/False AND the justification.
What is the 'past-tense trap'?
A 'used to' detail can be true once but false now — the tense flips whether the statement is True or False.
What is the five-step method for T/F + justify?
Read the statement → Locate the part it refers to → Decide T or F → Find the exact justifying words → Write BOTH the T/F and the justification.
Why is a bare True/False worth nothing?
The question awards the mark for the True/False PLUS the justifying words; without the justification the answer is incomplete.
Why quote the relevant words rather than the whole sentence?
Copying the whole sentence buries the proof; the mark needs the exact words that decide True or False.
Why watch verb tenses in T/F + justify?
A past detail ('used to…') can be true once but false now — the tense can flip whether the statement is True or False.
Why is an irrelevant justification not enough?
It doesn't prove your True/False; only the relevant detail that actually supports the answer earns the justification mark.
What is a gap-fill listening question?
A sentence or note with a blank that you complete with the exact word(s) you hear.
In gap-fill, does spelling count?
Yes — the exact word is the answer, so a misspelling can lose the mark.
How many words do you usually write in a gap-fill?
Usually one word or a few — only what the gap needs.
Besides being the right word, what must a gap-fill answer do?
Fit grammatically in the sentence (correct form, number and sense).
What does "to fit grammatically" mean?
Your word must agree and make grammatical sense in the sentence.
What is a transcript?
The written-out words of a recording.
What does "to predict" mean in a listening task?
To work out in advance what kind of word the gap needs, so you know what to listen for.
How many times do you hear each clip in Paper 2?
Twice — use the second play to confirm the spelling before you write.
What is the five-step method for gap-fill?
Read the gapped sentence → Predict the word type → Listen for it → Write it correctly → Check it fits grammatically.
Why predict the word type before listening?
Knowing whether the gap needs a number, a time or a noun tells you exactly what to listen for, so the word jumps out.
Why must your gap-fill answer fit the sentence grammatically?
The gap is part of a real sentence; a word that doesn't agree or make sense is almost certainly the wrong answer.
Why can a right word still lose the mark in gap-fill?
Because spelling is part of the answer — a misspelling can cost the mark.
Why write only what the gap needs, not more?
Writing extra words can bury the answer or break the grammar of the sentence; the gap wants the exact word(s), nothing more.
Why is a synonym wrong in a gap-fill, even if it means the same?
Gap-fill marks the exact word(s) you hear — a synonym is not what was said, so it doesn't earn the mark.
What is a short-answer question?
A question you answer in a few words of English — not a sentence — giving the correct, relevant detail.
What is a short answer marked on?
The correct, relevant content — NOT essay style, length, or perfect grammar.
What is 'the detail' in a listening question?
The single piece of information the question asks you to give.
What are the 'key word(s)' in a short answer?
The one or two words you note down as the answer.
Does 'By bus' score as well as 'She goes to school by bus'?
Yes — a few correct words score full marks; the full sentence adds nothing.
What does it mean to 'skim the question' first?
To read the question quickly before listening, so you know exactly what detail to listen for.
What does 'precise' mean for a short answer?
Exactly to the point — only the detail the question asks for, nothing extra.
How many times do you hear each Paper 2 listening clip?
Twice — use the second play to confirm or fill any gaps.
What is the five-step short-answer technique?
Read the question → Listen for that detail → Note the key word(s) → Write a short, precise answer → Check it answers the question.
Why is a short answer safer than a long one?
The shorter the answer, the less chance of including something wrong that cancels the mark — give the detail and stop.
Why is copying a long chunk of the recording risky?
The mark is for the precise detail; a long chunk may not answer the question and buries the relevant point.
What is the most common lost mark in short answers?
Answering a DIFFERENT question — a correct fact that doesn't answer what was actually asked scores nothing.
How does the wh- question word help you?
It tells you what kind of detail to give: who → a person, when → a time, where → a place, why → a reason, how → a manner/means.
Should you ever leave a short answer blank?
Never — you hear each recording twice, so use the second listen to fill every gap; a blank scores zero.
What are listening strategies?
Overarching techniques (predict, two-listen, deduce, infer) that improve every Paper 2 Listening question type.
What does it mean to 'predict' in listening?
To guess the vocabulary you'll hear, from the questions, before the audio plays.
What is 'the gist'?
The general idea of the recording — who, where and what it's about.
What is 'a detail' in a recording?
The specific piece of information a question asks for.
What does 'to deduce' mean?
To work out the meaning of an unknown word from the context around it.
What is 'inference'?
What is meant but not stated outright — a mood, opinion or purpose you work out from clues.
Name the four core listening strategies.
Active prediction; the two-listen strategy (gist then detail); deducing unknown words from context; inference of mood/opinion/purpose.
What is the two-listen strategy?
Use the first listen for the gist and the second listen for the details and to confirm.
What does 'catch the gist' mean?
To grasp the general idea on the first listen, without writing much yet.
What is the master listening routine?
Read the questions → Predict the vocabulary → First listen for the gist → Second listen for the details → Infer what isn't said & check.
Why shouldn't you try to catch every word?
Nobody catches every word — you need the meaning. The gist plus key details beats transcribing the whole clip.
What should you do when you hit an unknown word?
Don't freeze — deduce its meaning from the surrounding context and keep listening; one word rarely costs the answer.
When is inference needed in a listening question?
When the answer isn't word-for-word — you deduce the mood, opinion or purpose from the clues.
Why is the second listen important?
It exists to catch the details and confirm your answers — not just to re-hear the gist.
How many texts are in the Paper 2 Reading section?
3 texts, based on the themes.
Roughly how many marks is the Reading section worth?
About 40 marks (around one hour).
How is Paper 2 Reading marked?
Objectively, against an answer key — right or wrong, not on style.
In Reading, does the text stay in front of you?
Yes — unlike listening, you can re-read the text.
Name four common Reading question types.
Find-the-exact-words, gap-fill from a word list, multiple choice, True/False + justify, 'find the word/phrase that means…', heading-match, short answer.
What does 'reading comprehension' test?
Showing you understand a written text by answering questions on it.
What does 'objective marking' mean?
Each answer is simply right or wrong, marked against a fixed key — not judged on style.
THE GOLDEN RULE for most Paper 2 Reading answers?
Copy the EXACT words from the text. 'Answer using the words as they appear in the text' means paraphrasing scores ZERO.
If a question says 'answer using the words as they appear in the text', what scores the mark?
The exact words copied from the text. A paraphrase — even a correct one — scores zero.
What two things does a True/False question need to earn the mark?
BOTH the True/False decision AND a justification quoted word-for-word from the text.
Should your answer be padded with extra detail to be safe?
No — keep it complete but add NO extra/irrelevant words; extra wrong info can lose the mark.
Do spelling mistakes cost you the mark in Reading?
Not if the meaning is still clear — small spelling slips are OK.
How many answers go in a multiple-choice box?
Exactly ONE; putting two answers scores zero.
Where is the answer to a Reading question always found?
In the text itself — you locate it and copy it, you never need outside knowledge.
How many options are correct in a reading MCQ?
Exactly one.
How is a reading MCQ marked?
Objectively, all-or-nothing — right answer earns the mark, a wrong one earns nothing.
What is a 'distractor' in a reading MCQ?
A wrong option written to look tempting — often by reusing a word from the text.
In a multiple-choice question, how many answers do you put in the box?
Exactly one letter — two letters 'to be safe' scores zero.
What does 'according to the text' tell you about your answer?
It must be supported by the text, not by outside knowledge.
Give the 5-step routine for a reading MCQ.
Read the question and all options → Find the relevant part → Read that sentence closely → Eliminate the distractors → Choose.
What is the word-match trap?
A wrong option that repeats a word from the text but misreads its meaning, so it feels familiar.
Why is eliminating distractors useful?
It is often easier to rule options out than to spot the right one; what's left is your answer.
Why must you read the WHOLE relevant sentence?
The meaning of the full line decides the answer — deciding on half a sentence loses marks.
What is the GOLDEN RULE for Paper 2 Reading answers?
Copy the answer EXACTLY from the text — paraphrasing scores zero.
In Paper 2 Reading, can you put the answer in your own words?
No — for 'use the words in the text' questions you must copy the exact word/phrase; paraphrasing earns nothing.
What do you need for a True/False question to score the mark?
BOTH the tick (True/False) AND a justification quoted word-for-word from the text.
Are spelling mistakes penalised in Paper 2 Reading?
Not if the meaning of your copied word is still clear — minor spelling slips are OK.
Why can adding extra words lose you a mark?
A complete answer must add no irrelevant words — extra wrong information can cancel the mark.
In a True/False + justify question, what two things must you do?
Decide True or False AND justify by quoting the relevant words from the text.
How many marks is a True/False + justify item usually worth, and how do you earn it?
1 mark — but only for BOTH a correct decision and a correct justification quoted from the text.
What does "to justify" ask you to do?
Give the reason by quoting the exact relevant words from the text.
Where does the justification come from?
From the text — you copy the relevant words word for word.
What is the golden rule for answering Paper 2 Reading?
Copy the exact words as they appear in the text; paraphrasing scores zero.
Should you copy a whole paragraph as your justification?
No — quote only the specific words that prove your answer.
In a Paper 2 multiple-choice question, how many answers go in the box?
Exactly one; putting two answers scores zero.
Do spelling slips lose you the mark in Paper 2 Reading?
No — a spelling slip is fine if the meaning is still clear; wrong or extra words are the problem.
Give the 5-step routine for True/False + justify.
Read the statement → Find the relevant line → Decide True or False → Quote the justifying words → Write BOTH.
Why does a correct True/False earn nothing on its own?
The mark requires a justification quoted from the text as well as the decision.
What's the most common way to lose marks in True/False + justify?
Writing True or False with no justification.
Name three Paper 2 Reading question types that all reward the same skill.
Find the exact words; True/False + justify; "find the word/phrase that means…" (also gap-fill from a word list, multiple choice, heading-match).
Why quote only the relevant words, not the whole paragraph?
A buried justification may not be credited; short and exact beats long and vague.
What's the danger of adding extra words to a complete answer?
Extra wrong or irrelevant information can lose the mark — keep it complete but stop there.
What does a vocabulary-in-context question test?
What a word or phrase means in this particular text, using the surrounding context.
What is a synonym?
A word with the same (or nearly the same) meaning.
What does "in context" mean?
Judged by the words around it in this particular text — not by a dictionary alone.
What are the two formats of a vocab-in-context question?
(1) "Find the word/phrase that means X" (copy it out) and (2) "What does X mean here?" (pick the fitting meaning).
Literal vs figurative meaning?
Literal = the plain dictionary sense; figurative = a non-literal, imaginative sense (e.g. "nudge" = encouragement).
What does "to sign up for" mean?
To put your name down to join an activity or group.
What does "reluctant" mean?
Unwilling, hesitant to do something.
What does "to urge someone to" mean?
To strongly encourage someone to do something.
Give the 5-step routine for vocab in context.
Locate the word → Read around it → Infer from context → Match to the option / find the synonym → Check it fits.
Why shouldn't you rely on a remembered meaning alone?
A word can have several meanings; the context decides which one fits here.
How do you confirm a vocab-in-context meaning?
Re-read the sentence with your meaning slotted in — it should make sense.
Golden rule for Paper 2 Reading marks?
Copy the EXACT words from the text. "Using the words as they appear in the text" means paraphrasing scores ZERO.
What does a True/False question need for the 1 mark?
BOTH the correct tick (T or F) AND a justification quoted word-for-word from the text.
How many answers go in a multiple-choice box?
Exactly ONE. Two answers in one box scores 0.
What is a gap-fill task?
A task where you complete a sentence with the missing word(s).
In a gap-fill, where does the missing word usually come from?
From the text itself, or from a given word list.
How long is a typical gap-fill answer?
One word or just a few words.
What is a 'distractor' in a word list?
A word that looks possible but is wrong — a trap.
What does 'according to the text' mean in a gap-fill instruction?
Your answer must come from the text, not from outside knowledge.
Does spelling matter in a gap-fill answer?
Copy the word exactly; a small slip is OK if the meaning stays clear, but paraphrasing scores zero.
What two things must a correct gap-fill word do?
Come from the text/list, and be copied so it fits the sentence.
Give the 5-step gap-fill routine.
Read the gapped sentence → Predict the word type → Find it in the text → Copy it correctly → Check it fits.
Why predict the word type before searching?
So you scan for the right kind of word (noun, verb, number) instead of any word.
What is the golden rule of Paper 2 Reading?
Copy the EXACT words from the text — paraphrasing in your own words scores zero.
Should you invent a word for a gap if you can't find one?
No — the word comes from the text or the given list; never invent it.
How do you score the mark on a True/False question?
Give the tick AND a justification quoted word-for-word from the text.
How many answers go in a multiple-choice box?
Exactly one — two answers in a box score zero.
Why can the right idea still lose the mark?
If you paraphrase, or add extra wrong words; copy the exact words and add nothing irrelevant.
What does "to match" mean in a Reading task?
To link each item in one set with its partner in another set.
What does a matching task ask you to do?
Link each item in one set to its partner in another set.
Name three common matching formats.
People↔opinions, headings↔paragraphs, and the two halves of a sentence.
How many times is each option used in matching?
Exactly once.
What is the "spare" (extra) option?
The leftover option that matches nothing and stays unused — a distractor.
What is a distractor in a matching task?
A wrong option included on purpose to tempt you away from the right one.
Why is there usually one extra option in matching?
It's a distractor — a spare that matches nothing, to catch you out.
Give the 5-step matching routine.
Read both lists → Do the sure ones first → Eliminate → Match the rest → Check none is reused and the spare is left over.
Should you match in order, top to bottom?
No — do the matches you're sure of first; each one removes an option.
Should you match because two items share one word?
No — match on the meaning of the whole statement, not a single shared word.
Should you ever leave a matching question blank?
No — match every item, using elimination for the ones you're unsure of.
What is the golden rule for most Paper 2 Reading answers?
Copy the exact words straight from the text — paraphrasing scores zero.
In True/False + justify, what earns the 1 mark?
Both the correct tick AND a justification quoted word-for-word from the text.
In multiple choice, how many answers go in the box?
Exactly one — two answers in a box scores zero, even if one is right.
What does a sentence-completion task ask you to do?
Finish a sentence so it matches what the text says.
What are the two sentence-completion formats?
Choose the right ending (a/b/c), or complete the sentence with words from the text.
What is the 'sentence stem'?
The beginning of the sentence that you have to finish.
What does 'according to the text' mean?
Based on what the text actually says, not your own ideas.
When is a finished sentence correct?
When it is true according to the text, not just sensible in general.
Does the ending need to fit grammatically?
Yes — the whole finished sentence must fit the grammar of the stem.
Golden rule: what does "answer using the words as they appear in the text" mean?
Copy the EXACT word or phrase from the text. Paraphrasing scores zero.
Does paraphrasing score the mark in Paper 2 Reading?
No — if the text words are required, a paraphrase scores zero, even if it means the same.
Can adding extra words lose you the mark?
Yes — keep the answer complete but add NO extra/irrelevant words; wrong extra info can cancel the mark.
What does a True/False question need to earn its mark?
Both the tick (True/False) AND a justification quoted word-for-word from the text.
Do spelling slips lose the mark?
No — small spelling mistakes are fine as long as the meaning is still clear.
How many answers go in a multiple-choice box?
Exactly one — putting two answers in the box loses the mark.
Give the 5-step sentence-completion routine.
Read the stem → Find what the text says → Copy or choose the ending → Check the sentence is true per the text → Move on.
What is the 'time shift' trap in completion?
An ending true for a later part of the text but not for the part the stem asks about.
What is a reference word?
A small word like "it", "this", "them" or "there" that points back to a noun or idea said earlier in the text.
What is a referent?
The actual noun, person, place or idea that a reference word points to.
What does "to refer to" mean?
To point back to something already mentioned in the text.
What does "to substitute" mean?
To put one word in place of another — here, putting the noun back in place of the reference word to check it fits.
What do "it" and "them" usually point to?
A noun (a thing, or things) already mentioned in the text.
What do "this" and "that" usually point to?
A whole idea or sentence said before, not just a single noun.
What do "there" and "here" usually point to?
A place that was mentioned earlier in the text.
What do "his", "her" and "their" usually point to?
The owner mentioned earlier (whose something is).
Do reference words point forwards or backwards?
Backwards — they point to something said earlier, so read the lines BEFORE the word.
Give the 5-step routine for tracking a reference.
Find → Read before → Identify → Substitute → Check.
How do you confirm you have the right referent?
Substitute the noun back in place of the reference word and check the sentence still makes sense.
When you answer "What does 'it' refer to?", what should you write?
The actual noun or idea it points to (e.g. "the dog"), copied from the text — never the word "it" itself.
What is the golden rule of Paper 2 Reading answers?
Answer using the words as they appear in the text — copy the exact word/phrase; a paraphrase scores ZERO.
How do you score the mark on a True/False question?
Tick True or False AND quote the exact words from the text that prove it — both are needed for the 1 mark.
What is a short answer in Paper 2 Reading?
An answer of a few words or a short phrase to a question about the text.
What is the Golden Rule of Paper 2 Reading?
Most answers must be COPIED EXACTLY from the text — paraphrasing scores ZERO when told to use the words as they appear.
What does "Answer using the words as they appear in the text" mean?
Find the exact word/phrase and copy it — don't reword it.
What does "according to the text" tell you?
The answer is in the passage — locate it; don't use outside knowledge.
In a short answer, what is mainly marked — style or content?
Content correctness — the right information, briefly; style is not the point.
Are spelling slips heavily penalised in a reading short answer?
No — a spelling slip is OK as long as the meaning is still clear.
Why must you trim extra words from a short answer?
Keep it complete but add NO extra/irrelevant words — extra wrong info can lose the mark.
How many answers go in a multiple-choice box?
Exactly ONE answer in the box.
Name three question types that need the EXACT words from the text.
Find the exact words; find the word/phrase that means…; the justification in True/False.
Give the 5-step short-answer routine.
Read the question → Locate the line → Lift the exact words → Trim the extras → Check it answers the question.
Should you read the text or the question first?
Read the question first, so you know exactly what to locate in the text.
What two things does a True/False + justify question need for the 1 mark?
BOTH the tick (True/False) AND a justification quoted word-for-word from the text.
Why should you never leave a short answer blank?
A blank scores zero, but a brief, text-supported attempt can score the mark.
What's the risk of paraphrasing a "find the exact words" question?
It scores ZERO — you must copy the precise words from the text.
Individual Oral (IO)
your one-to-one spoken assessment with your teacher — the IA for English B
visual stimulus
the photo/image you talk about, linked to one of the five themes
the five themes
Identities, Experiences, Human ingenuity, Social organisation, Sharing the planet
supervised preparation
the ~15 minutes you get alone to plan, with short notes only
the presentation
Part 1 — you speak about the image for about 3–4 minutes
the conversation
Part 2 — the teacher asks you questions for about 4–5 minutes
to interpret an image
to say what it means or suggests, beyond what you literally see
to relate to a theme
to connect the image to a course theme and say why
How long is supervised preparation?
About 15 minutes — and you may use short notes only, never a full script.
How long is each spoken part?
Presentation ~3–4 minutes; conversation ~4–5 minutes.
What order should the presentation follow?
Describe → interpret → relate to a theme → opinion → invite the conversation.
How is the IO marked?
Out of 30: A Language /12, B Message /12, C Interactive & receptive /6.
How do you avoid a one-word answer?
Add a reason ("because…"), an example ("for example…") or an opinion ("in my opinion…").
Where do Message (B) marks really come from?
Interpreting the image and linking it to a theme — not from describing every object.
Out of how many marks is the Individual Oral?
30 marks, across three criteria (A, B and C).
Criterion A — Language
Marks for the range and accuracy of your English: vocabulary, grammar, structures and clear pronunciation (/12).
Criterion B — Message
Marks for relevant, developed ideas linked to the stimulus and the theme (/12).
Criterion C — Interactive & receptive skills
Marks for understanding the teacher, responding, and keeping the conversation going (/6).
How many marks is Criterion C worth?
/6 — the lowest-weighted criterion, but it still counts.
to develop an idea
to expand a point with reasons, examples or detail, not just state it
to interpret the stimulus
to say what an image means or suggests, not only what it shows
to sustain a conversation
to keep the exchange going — answering fully and asking back
range vs accuracy (Criterion A)
Range = how varied your language is; accuracy = how correct it is. You need both.
Describe vs interpret
Describing = what you see; interpreting = what it means or suggests (the Message marks).
Which criterion rewards developed ideas linked to the theme?
Criterion B — Message (/12).
Which criterion rewards keeping the conversation going?
Criterion C — Interactive & receptive skills (/6).
One easy way to earn Criterion C marks
End an answer with a genuine question back to the teacher.
Why aim at all three criteria from the start?
Half the marks come from Message (B) and Interaction (C), not just Language (A).
stimulus
the photo (visual prompt) you describe and interpret in the Individual Oral
to describe (a photo)
to say what is literally in the image
to interpret (a photo)
to say what the image suggests or means, beyond what is literally there
in the foreground
in the front part of the image, closest to the viewer
in the background
in the part of the image furthest away, behind everything
on the left / on the right
position words for what is on each side of the image
there is / there are
the phrase used to say what exists in the image
it seems that… / it appears that…
phrases that move you from describing to interpreting
it gives the impression that…
a phrase for saying what feeling or idea the image suggests
to set the scene
to give a one-sentence overview before the details
Name the 5 steps of a strong description.
Overview → detail+position → more detail → interpret → link+opinion.
What is the most common way to lose Criterion B marks?
Just listing objects, with no position language and no interpretation.
How do you move from describing to interpreting?
Use "it seems to me that…", "it gives the impression that…", "this suggests that…".
Name the three IA criteria.
A Language (12), B Message (12), C Interactive & receptive skills (6).
visual stimulus
the photo you are given in the Individual Oral
Name the five course themes.
Identities, Experiences, Human ingenuity, Social organization, Sharing the planet.
to generalise
to move from one photo to a wider point about society or culture
cultural reference / example
a specific real thing from the English-speaking world (a festival, place, campaign, tradition)
the English-speaking world
countries and communities where English is widely spoken (UK, USA, Ireland, Australia, Canada…)
to relate to / to be linked to
to be connected to something — used to name the theme of a photo
How do you NAME the theme of a photo?
"This image relates to the theme of… because it shows…"
How do you ADD a cultural example?
"A good example of this is…" + one real, specific reference.
How do you GENERALISE a point?
"More broadly, in the English-speaking world…" + a wider trend.
What is the 4-step IO linking recipe?
Describe briefly → name the theme → one cultural example → generalise.
Why is a specific example better than a vague one?
A precise reference (Notting Hill Carnival, Clean Up Australia Day) shows real cultural knowledge.
Name the three Individual Oral criteria.
A Language (12), B Message (12), C Interactive skills (6).
What is the IO worth in the final grade?
15% of the final grade for English B SL.
What does 'engage with the photo' mean?
Use the photo as a starting point for ideas, not just to describe it.
the presentation (IO)
the prepared 1.5–2 minute talk you give on your own about the image, before the conversation
stimulus (image)
the photo or picture you are given to talk about
to describe
to say what you can see in the image
to interpret
to say what the image suggests or means, beyond what is simply visible
to link to a theme
to connect the image to one of the five course themes and say why
an introduction (IO)
the opening sentence that says what the image shows
a close / conclusion (IO)
the final sentence that rounds off the talk and opens the conversation
to signpost
to use connectors so the listener can follow your structure
preparation time
the supervised time before you speak, in which you plan your talk
What is the five-part shape of the presentation?
Introduction → description → interpretation & opinion → theme link → close.
Which part wins the most Message marks?
Interpretation & opinion — say what the image means and what you think, not just what you see.
Name three useful connectors for the presentation.
To begin with (open), moreover (add), to sum up / finally (close).
What are the two most common errors in the presentation?
Describing without interpreting (a flat list), and running out of things to say after one minute.
Name the three Individual Oral criteria.
A Language (12), B Message (12), C Interactive & receptive (6).
the conversation
the question-and-answer part of the oral that follows your photo presentation
to develop an answer
to extend a reply with a reason, an example or your experience, not stopping at one phrase
a discourse marker
a small word/phrase ('well', 'actually', 'to be honest') that gives flow and buys thinking time
to justify
to give the reason why you think something ('I think… because…')
to ask for clarification
to politely ask the examiner to repeat or explain ('Sorry, could you repeat that?')
to keep the conversation going
to answer so it invites more talk, rather than closing the topic with one word
to elaborate
to say more about a point, adding detail
register
how formal or informal your language is; the oral is informal but polite
What is the develop-a-reply recipe?
Answer → because (reason) → for example → in my case (your experience).
Give two discourse markers to buy thinking time.
'Well…', 'That's a good question…' — also 'To be honest…', 'Let me think…'.
What should you do if you don't catch a question?
Politely ask for a repeat: 'Sorry, could you repeat the question, please?' — never go silent.
Which criterion does the conversation build most?
Criterion C — Interactive skills (it also lifts B Message and A Language).
Why are one-word answers a problem?
They give the examiner nothing to assess and stall the conversation, hurting Interaction.
Should you memorise whole conversation answers?
No — prepare moves and phrases, not fixed speeches; memorised answers ignore the real question.
to describe (in the IO)
to say plainly what is in the stimulus — "I can see…", "there is…"
to interpret (in the IO)
to deduce something uncertain — a feeling or situation — "it seems that…"
to give a developed opinion
to say what you think AND why — "in my opinion… because…"
connector
a linking word that joins ideas — however, therefore, on the other hand
filler
a natural phrase that buys you a moment to think instead of silence — "well…", "let me think…"
to hedge
to soften a claim you're unsure of — "perhaps…", "it might be that…"
to paraphrase
to say something in different words when the exact word won't come
register
how formal or informal your language is; the IO is fairly informal but still careful
What is the order of the three jobs in the IO?
Describe -> interpret -> opine: what you see, what's probably happening, what you think.
Give two phrases for interpreting a stimulus.
"It seems that…" and "it gives the impression that…" (also "this suggests…").
How do you turn a bare opinion into a developed one?
Add a reason, example or consequence — follow the view with "because…".
What should you do instead of falling silent?
Use a filler in English ("well, let me think…") or paraphrase around the missing word.
Name two high-level features that lift Criterion A in the IO.
A range of tenses (incl. the conditional "I would like…") and connectors used accurately.
Name the three IO assessment criteria.
A Language, B Message, C Interactive & receptive skills.
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