Words, phrases & clauses

the indefinite article: one of many, not specified (a book, an idea); first mention of something new.

the definite article: a specific, already-known or unique thing (the book we saw, the sun).

By the SOUND: 'an' before a vowel sound (an hour, an apple), 'a' before a consonant sound (a university, a book).

For general plural or uncountable nouns: 'Books are useful', 'I love music', 'Water is essential'.

Introduce with a/an, refer back with the: 'I bought a jacket. The jacket was too big.'

No — uncountables (advice, information, water) never take a/an; use 'some' or a measure word (a piece of advice).

much + uncountable (much time, much money); many + countable plural (many friends). 'a lot of' works for both.

Distance + number: this/these = near, that/those = far; this/that = singular, these/those = plural.

some in positive statements and offers (I have some / Would you like some?); any in negatives and questions (I don't have any / Is there any?).

my, your, his, her, its, our, their — they replace the article: 'my phone', not 'the my phone'.

Only one: 'my book' OR 'the book', never 'the my book'.

'I got some useful information.' — 'information' is uncountable, so no a/an; use 'some'.

'People are kind here.' — a general statement about people takes no article (zero article).

'I don't have many friends.' — 'friends' is countable, so 'many', not 'much'.

He called me. Subject does the action (he); object receives it (me).

this is my book; the book is mine. (my + noun; mine stands alone)

myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves.

who (or that in a defining clause): "the friend who/that helped me".

which (or that in a defining clause): "the bus which/that was late".

whose: "the author whose book won the prize".

where: "the city where I was born".

Defining = identifies the noun, NO commas. Non-defining = extra info, commas. "that" only in defining.

Only when it is the OBJECT of the clause: "the film (that) I saw". Never when it is the subject.

its = possessive ("its tail"); it's = it is / it has. Never use it's for possession.

I have a friend who speaks Arabic.

They stop repetition and link ideas, raising Criterion A (Language) range and fluency.

Object form: "between you and me", "give it to him and me" — not "I"/"he".

the song that I like (drop "it"; the object is already "that").

Add -ly: quick → quickly, careful → carefully (a final -y becomes -i: happy → happily).

Adjective — a *quiet* room, a *difficult* exam.

Adverb (usually -ly) — she sings *beautifully*, he works *hard*.

well — *she plays well*, NOT 'she plays good'.

-er / -est: tall → taller → the tallest; big → bigger → the biggest (double the consonant).

more / most: careful → more careful → the most careful. Never -er.

happier → the happiest (final -y becomes -i).

good → better → the best (irregular).

bad → worse → the worst (irregular).

Comparative + 'than' for TWO things (taller than); 'the' + superlative + in/of for one of a GROUP (the tallest in the class).

Equality — *he is as tall as his brother*; 'not as … as' shows inequality.

It double-marks the comparative. Use either -er OR more, never both: just 'taller'.

Linking verbs: be, seem, look, feel, sound, taste, smell — *the soup tastes good* (not 'tastes well').

Linked change — *the more you practise, the better you get*.

at + clock time (at 7pm) · on + day/date (on Monday) · in + long period (in July, in the morning)

at + a point (at the door) · on + a surface (on the wall) · in + an enclosed space (in the box, in Paris)

for + a LENGTH of time (for two years) · since + a STARTING point (since 2024).

to = movement to a destination (go to school) · at/in = static location (be at school, study in school).

to, into, onto, from, towards, through, across, along — show direction or motion.

through = in one side and out the other (through the tunnel) · across = from one side to the other (across the road).

good AT — "good at drawing", "good at maths" (never 'good in').

interested IN — "interested in photography".

depend ON — "It depends on the weather" (never 'depend of').

afraid OF · listen TO · wait FOR — fixed dependent prepositions.

A small word showing a relationship of time, place or movement between a noun and the rest of the sentence (in, on, at, to, by).

during a period · until a point in time · by a deadline · a time + ago (two days ago).

between = two things (between the trees) · among = more than two (among friends).

Ask: is it about WHEN (time), WHERE (place) or which DIRECTION (movement)? Then pick the precise word.