Effects case study 2 — the Hundred Years' War

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It ran from 1337 to 1453 — a series of wars between England and France lasting 116 years.

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England was expelled from France except for the port of Calais, which it held until 1558.

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It was the single English foothold left in France after 1453 — the last remnant of a once-large English territory.

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Kings won permanent national taxation (the taille) and created the first standing army, freeing the crown from dependence on the nobles.

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The first permanent standing army in medieval France — paid cavalry companies loyal to the king rather than to local lords.

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A peasant girl who from 1429 rallied France, lifted the siege of Orléans and had Charles VII crowned; she became a symbol of French national identity.

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Generations of fighting a foreign enemy helped people begin to see themselves as 'French' or 'English' rather than only subjects of a local lord.

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Defeat discredited Henry VI, left huge debts, and sent nobles home with private armies — feeding the rivalries that became civil war from 1455.

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The fighting on French soil devastated the countryside through looting and burning, while trade was disrupted and taxation grew heavy.

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A settlement giving Edward III an independent Gascony in return for dropping his French throne claim; it broke down within a decade.

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A treaty making England's Henry V heir to the French throne; it collapsed after Henry V and Charles VI died in 1422 and Joan of Arc revived French resistance.

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Each reflected only one side's temporary high point, so once the balance of power shifted the losing side rejected the terms and renewed the war.