Post-independence politics in Africa to 2005

Ethnic tensions, economic problems, destabilization by outside forces, and inefficiency of civilian governments (also ideology and personal ambition).

The sudden, illegal seizure of power, usually by the military, overthrowing the existing government.

Borders drawn by European powers grouped rival ethnic groups into one state or split a single group across two states, so new governments had to rule over people with no shared identity or trust.

Nigeria: Igbo people in the south-east felt excluded and threatened after anti-Igbo violence in the north, and declared independence as Biafra in 1967, starting the Nigerian Civil War (1967-1970).

The USA and USSR armed and funded rival factions or governments to win influence, turning local disputes into bigger, longer, bloodier conflicts (e.g. arms and support flowing to different sides in African civil wars).

Weak institutions inherited from colonial rule, corruption, lack of trained administrators, ethnic favouritism in appointments, and economies still shaped for colonial export rather than the needs of citizens.

They claimed civilian governments were corrupt, weak or failing, and that the army had to step in to restore order, unity and effective government.

Suspension of constitutions and elections, censorship and repression of opposition, and concentration of power and wealth around the ruler and army (patronage).

Nigeria: repeated coups (1966, 1975, 1983, 1985) and long stretches of military rule (e.g. under Sani Abacha, 1993-1998) delayed democratic development and were marked by human rights abuses.

Even after political independence, former colonial powers and foreign companies kept economic control — buying raw materials cheaply and selling manufactured goods back at high prices, keeping African economies dependent.

Disease, illiteracy, poverty and famine — worsened by neo-colonial economic exploitation that kept economies dependent on exporting raw materials.

Poverty and economic problems fed frustration with the government, gave military leaders a justification to intervene ('the civilians failed us'), and civil wars then destroyed infrastructure, deepening poverty further — cause and effect fed each other in a cycle.

A country where the law (or practice) allows only one political party to exist and compete for power.

The Convention People's Party (CPP); Ghana became a formal one-party state in 1964.

Kenya African National Union (KANU); Kenya became a one-party state by law in 1982 under Moi.

Personal ambition, the perceived 'failure' of Western-style multi-party democracy, and the need for unity/effective government.

A military coup, driven by growing repression, economic crisis (falling cocoa prices), and discontent with prestige projects.

Jerry Rawlings — ruled as a military leader from 1981, then won civilian elections in 1992 and 1996 after legalising parties.

The end of the Cold War — Western donors no longer needed to tolerate authoritarian allies and made aid conditional on multi-party reform.

The opposition vote was split among several rival candidates, allowing KANU to win with only a minority of overall support.

A united opposition under Mwai Kibaki decisively defeated KANU's chosen successor — the first real transfer of power in Kenya's history.

Rawlings respected constitutional term limits and stepped down; opposition candidate John Kufuor won, marking a peaceful transfer of power.

Political stability, multi-partyism, strong leadership, infrastructural development, investment, and economic reforms — together, not any single factor alone.

Ghana: leader-driven, ended in a peaceful handover (Rawlings to Kufuor, 2000). Kenya: donor-driven, delayed by a split opposition until Kibaki's win in 2002.