20th-century nationalist and independence movements in Africa

Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola — founded 1956, Marxist-leaning, based among the Mbundu and strongest in Luanda.

Jonas Savimbi founded UNITA in 1966; its main support base was the Ovimbundu people in southern Angola.

The Carnation Revolution — army officers exhausted by colonial wars overthrew the Portuguese government, and the new government withdrew from Africa, granting Angola independence on 11 November 1975.

It collapsed into civil war because MPLA, UNITA and FNLA had never agreed on power-sharing; the war became a Cold War proxy conflict (Cuba/USSR backing MPLA, US/South Africa backing UNITA).

The South West Africa People's Organization, founded 1960, was the main Namibian nationalist movement; its leading figure was Sam Nujoma, who became Namibia's first president.

In 1966, after the International Court of Justice failed to rule against South African rule; SWAPO's armed wing PLAN then began guerrilla raids from bases in Zambia.

21 March 1990, following a 1988 agreement linking Cuban troop withdrawal from Angola to South African withdrawal from Namibia, then UN-supervised elections won by SWAPO.

Loss of the best highland farmland to white settlers, which left many Kikuyu landless — especially ex-soldiers and squatters pushed off settler farms.

A moderate, constitutional nationalist party founded in 1944; Jomo Kenyatta became its president in 1947, demanding land reform through legal channels.

Britain declared a State of Emergency in 1952, deployed the army, and ran mass detention camps (with documented brutality, e.g. Hola) to crush the revolt by 1956.

The Kenya African National Union, founded 1960 and led by Jomo Kenyatta after his 1961 release; it won the 1963 elections and led Kenya to independence on 12 December 1963.

Angola: three rival movements (MPLA/UNITA/FNLA) never agreed on power, so independence in 1975 collapsed into civil war. Kenya: one dominant party (KANU) took over smoothly in 1963 under Kenyatta.

MPLA (Neto, Soviet/Cuban-backed), UNITA (Savimbi, later US/South Africa-backed), and FNLA (Roberto, based near Zaire).

It began in 1961 against Portuguese rule and continued until independence in 1975 — then civil war between MPLA and UNITA continued for decades.

The Carnation Revolution of April 1974 overthrew Portugal's dictatorship; the new government had no will to keep fighting colonial wars and withdrew.

Portugal left without a power-sharing agreement between MPLA, UNITA and FNLA, so the rival, ethnically-based movements fought each other for control.

Sam Nujoma founded SWAPO (South West Africa People's Organization) in 1960 to campaign for independence from South African rule.

21 March 1990, after 1988 accords between South Africa, Angola and Cuba led to troop withdrawals and UN-supervised elections.

SWAPO used bases in Angola; Cuban troops supporting the MPLA also helped block South African forces; a settled Angola/Namibia border was part of what forced South Africa to negotiate.

Julius Nyerere led TANU (Tanganyika African National Union); Mwalimu is Swahili for 'teacher', his popular nickname.

9 December 1961 — only about six years after TANU formed in 1954, achieved through constitutional negotiation rather than war.

It had no large European settler population, TANU united people across ethnic lines, and Britain (as trustee) was obliged to prepare it for self-rule rather than defend a permanent colony.

Whether the ruling/occupying power was willing to negotiate a transfer of power — Britain negotiated in Tanganyika; Portugal and apartheid South Africa refused in Angola and Namibia, forcing armed struggle.

Define terms, choose 2–3 best-fit territories, structure one paragraph per factor (supported by evidence from multiple territories), and end with a direct judgement answering the question.