Trade and exchange: The Silk Road in the medieval world (750–1500)

Chang'an — a cosmopolitan hub filled with Persian, Sogdian, Turkic, and Arab traders, protected by Tang garrisons along the trade routes.

Central Asian merchants who dominated Silk Road trade during the Tang period, acting as go-betweens linking China and Persia.

A Venetian merchant (c. 1254–1324) who travelled to Kublai Khan's Mongol court in China in the 1270s; his written account introduced Europeans to Mongol China.

A Muslim scholar from Tangier, Morocco (1304–1369), who travelled across the Middle East, Central Asia, India, and China; his account, the Rihla, records the trade cities he saw.

Missionaries (spreading Buddhism, Christianity, Islam), pilgrims (travelling to holy sites), and diplomats/explorers such as Marco Polo and Ibn Battuta.

A roadside inn built along trade routes to house merchants, their animals, and goods overnight.

The period of relative peace and unified control across the Mongol Empire's territory, which made Silk Road trade safer and faster because one authority controlled most of the route.

A Mongol relay network of horse stations that let messengers, officials, and protected merchant traffic move quickly across the empire.

A metal pass issued by Mongol authorities guaranteeing its holder safe passage and supplies — this is how Marco Polo travelled safely through Mongol territory.

A Central Asian conqueror (ruled 1370–1405) who built a new empire modelled on Chinggis Khan's, making Samarkand his capital and reviving Central Asian trade.

Chinggis Khan unified almost the whole Silk Road with lasting infrastructure (Yam, paiza); Tamerlane later rebuilt trade across Central Asia through conquest, centred on Samarkand, after the original khanates weakened.

Political unification and strong central authority make trade routes safer, which increases trade; fragmentation of power has the opposite effect.

The 'Mongol Peace' — the period when one Mongol authority controlled most of the Silk Road, making trade safer and cheaper.

A Mongol relay network of postal stations about 30–40 km apart with fresh horses and guards, speeding up safe travel and communication.

A metal safe-conduct tablet issued by Mongol officials that let traders pass checkpoints without harassment.

They needed trade tax revenue to fund their empire, so they made roads safer and taxes predictable to attract more merchants.

Khanbaliq (Beijing, Yuan China), Sarai (Golden Horde, Volga River), Tabriz (Ilkhanate, Persia).

A Turco-Mongol conqueror (r. 1370–1405) who claimed descent from Genghis Khan and built a new empire across Persia and Central Asia.

Tamerlane's capital city, which he built into a major centre of trade, art, and learning by relocating skilled craftsmen there.

Previously isolated nomadic societies and settled empires were connected into one political system, letting ideas and administration move across former borders.

Buddhism spread further into Mongol territory; Islam spread deeper into Central Asia and China; Christian missionaries also reached the Mongol court.

The empire split into rival khanates, and after Tamerlane's death in 1405 no single power remained to guarantee safety or unified taxes.

Advances in shipbuilding and navigation let merchants move goods by sea more cheaply and safely than crossing multiple fragmented, unsafe land territories.

Pax Mongolica: one authority, standardised taxes, safe roads, military protection. After collapse: multiple rival rulers, local tolls, banditry, declining safety.