The development of modern nations (1865–1929)

The transcontinental railroad, connecting the Atlantic and Pacific coasts and opening the west to settlement and trade.

Britain wanted cheap Argentine beef, wheat and wool; British-financed lines were built to move these exports from the pampas to Buenos Aires.

A country stays politically independent but remains economically controlled by a foreign power, e.g. Argentina's British-financed export economy.

An economy exports cheap raw materials and imports expensive manufactured goods, so wealth flows to the stronger foreign economy.

Immigration (from Europe), internal migration (westward settlement), and emigration — each with different causes and effects.

Loss of land, forced relocation onto reservations, and destruction of the bison herds many Plains nations depended on.

The belief that US expansion across the continent was natural and justified — used to defend taking indigenous and Mexican land.

Positivism claimed societies progress through science and order; social Darwinism twisted evolution to claim some races/nations were naturally superior, justifying inequality and expansion.

A Latin American (especially Mexican and Andean) movement romanticizing indigenous heritage as part of national identity, often without giving indigenous people real political power.

US railroads built an internal industrial economy; Argentine railroads served export agriculture and stayed economically dependent on Britain.

Railroads fed industrial growth, which drew people off farms and into fast-growing industrial cities — urbanization.

Because description alone (just the tracks) scores low; explaining why they were built and what changed afterward shows analysis, which examiners reward.

His programme of using federal power to regulate big business fairly for labour, business and consumers alike.

He used the Sherman Antitrust Act to break up the Northern Securities railroad monopoly in 1904.

Holding together English and French Canada while promoting national unity and rapid growth.

His proposed reciprocity (free-trade) deal with the US alarmed English Canadians who feared weakened ties to Britain.

'Bread or the stick' — Díaz rewarded loyal supporters and violently crushed opponents to maintain order.

Peasants lost communal land (ejidos) to haciendas and were excluded from the gains, causing the inequality that sparked the 1910 Revolution.

That racial segregation was constitutional as long as facilities were 'separate but equal', legalizing Jim Crow for decades.

Washington favoured economic self-help and accepted short-term segregation (Atlanta Compromise); Du Bois demanded immediate full civil rights and co-founded the NAACP (1909).

The Universal Negro Improvement Association — promoted Black pride, self-reliance, Black-owned business and Pan-Africanism.

The movement of over a million African Americans from the rural South to northern cities, roughly 1916–1930, seeking jobs and escaping Jim Crow.

A 1920s flowering of African American literature, music (especially jazz) and art centred in Harlem, New York, expressing new Black pride and identity.

The post-Reconstruction South (after 1877), which promised industrial growth but remained largely agricultural, dependent on cheap Black labour through sharecropping and tenant farming.