Europe and the First World War (1871–1918)

Bismarck built the Dual Alliance (1879), Triple Alliance (1882) and Reinsurance Treaty (1887) to ensure France had no powerful allies in Europe who would help it seek revenge for the loss of Alsace-Lorraine.

A conference hosted by Bismarck to revise the Treaty of San Stefano. It cut back Russia's gains from the Russo-Turkish War, kept the Balkans stable, and established Bismarck as Europe's 'honest broker'. It left Russia resentful.

Kaiser Wilhelm II's 'world policy' — ambition to make Germany a global imperial power with a large navy and overseas empire. It alarmed Britain and France and drove them into the Triple Entente.

German legislation to build a large ocean-going fleet, masterminded by Admiral Tirpitz. They challenged British naval supremacy and were a key reason Britain ended its 'splendid isolation' and aligned with France.

Triple Alliance: Germany + Austria-Hungary + Italy (1882). Triple Entente: Franco-Russian Alliance (1894) + Entente Cordiale between France and Britain (1904) + Anglo-Russian Convention (1907).

Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina; Serbia and Russia objected. Germany backed Austria-Hungary and Russia backed down, humiliated. Russia resolved never to back down again — this stiffened Russia's resolve in July 1914.

Germany's war plan to defeat France quickly by invading through Belgium, then transfer forces east against Russia. Violating Belgian neutrality brought Britain into the war on 4 August 1914.

Germany's unconditional promise of support to Austria-Hungary given in early July 1914. It allowed Austria-Hungary to issue a harsh ultimatum to Serbia without seeking compromise, escalating the July Crisis into a general war.

28 June: assassination of Franz Ferdinand → 5–6 July: blank cheque → 23 July: Austro-Hungarian ultimatum to Serbia → 28 July: Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia → 1 Aug: Germany declares war on Russia → 3 Aug: Germany declares war on France → 4 Aug: Britain declares war on Germany.

Fischer argued Germany deliberately planned and sought the First World War as a war of aggression aimed at achieving European and world hegemony. It was controversial — critics argued he overstated German guilt and ignored the roles of Austria-Hungary, Russia and France.

The theory that German leaders used aggressive foreign policy (and ultimately war) to distract the working class from domestic inequality and unite the population behind nationalism, managing social tensions at home.

As Ottoman power collapsed, Balkan states fought for territory. Serbia grew stronger in the Balkan Wars (1912–13) and Serb nationalism threatened Austria-Hungary's multi-ethnic empire. This Austro-Serbian rivalry was the immediate context for the assassination of Franz Ferdinand in 1914.

The Defence of the Realm Act (1914). It allowed the government to censor media, requisition factories, restrict pub hours, control food supplies, and eventually introduce conscription in 1916.

January 1916 — the first time in British history. Men aged 18–41 were required to serve in the armed forces.

The German winter of 1916–17, when the potato harvest failed due to disease and blockade effects. Turnips (normally animal feed) became the staple food. Malnutrition spread widely; ~750,000 civilian deaths are attributed to the blockade over the war.

Britain: voluntary rationing from 1917, compulsory 1918; main threat was U-boat attacks on Atlantic shipping. Germany: rationing from 1914, progressively cut; naval blockade caused malnutrition and ~750,000 civilian deaths — far more severe than Britain's experience.

Germany invaded Belgium, bringing Britain into the war. French and British forces halted the German advance at the Marne in September 1914. The plan assumed a six-week defeat of France, but instead the war became the two-front attritional struggle Germany had tried to avoid.

German commander Falkenhayn aimed to 'bleed France white' — inflict casualties France could not sustain. But the battle bled both sides equally (~300,000 dead each). Germany gained no territory and exhausted its own reserves.

1. Germany's resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare (February 1917), threatening American ships. 2. The Zimmermann Telegram — Arthur Zimmermann's coded proposal for a German-Mexican alliance against the US, intercepted by British intelligence.

General John Pershing commanded the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF). About 2 million American troops eventually served in France, reinforcing the Allies from mid-1917 and helping break German lines in 1918.

1. Bulgaria: armistice September 1918. 2. Ottoman Empire: armistice October 1918. 3. Austria-Hungary: dissolved in late October 1918 as ethnic groups declared independence. 4. Germany: revolution, Kaiser abdicated 9 November, armistice 11 November 1918.

The false claim, promoted by generals Hindenburg and Ludendorff after the war, that Germany had been undefeated on the battlefield but was betrayed by politicians and civilians at home. In reality, Germany collapsed due to military failure, economic blockade, and domestic revolution.

October 1918: German sailors at Kiel refused orders to sail on a final suicidal offensive. The mutiny spread rapidly to other ports and cities, triggering the German Revolution. It was a key moment of domestic collapse that made continued fighting impossible.

It identifies multiple causes (strategic errors, blockade, US entry, domestic collapse) but argues they were interrelated — strategic failures extended the war, the blockade worked because the war lasted long enough, US entry exploited Germany's exhaustion, and domestic collapse was driven by all the above. The essay then judges which factor was **most** important and justifies that judgement with evidence.