Colonial rule and the grievances it produced

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A colonial system where officials sent from the imperial country govern the colony themselves, replacing local rulers (the French model).

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A colonial system where the imperial power keeps local chiefs or princes in place and rules through them — cheaper and needing fewer officials (often the British model).

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A settler colony has many permanent incomers who seize land and demand rights (e.g. Algeria, Kenya); an administrative colony has few settlers and is run by a small elite mainly to extract resources (e.g. British India).

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Economic, Political, Social and Cultural (remember E-P-S-C).

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Extraction of raw materials, land seizure, heavy taxation, forced labour, and de-industrialisation (destroying local industry).

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Native populations were excluded from real government, with a racial hierarchy reserving the highest administrative posts for the imperial power's own people.

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British Crown rule over India, 1858–1947. It began after the 1857 rebellion, when Britain abolished the East India Company and the Crown took direct control.

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The nationalist argument (associated with Dadabhai Naoroji) that India's wealth was being steadily drained to Britain through taxes, salaries and profits, keeping India poor.

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British troops under General Dyer fired on an unarmed crowd, killing hundreds. It destroyed faith in British reform and pushed moderates toward mass resistance under Gandhi.

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Peninsulares were Spaniards born in Spain who held the top offices; criollos were American-born people of Spanish descent — wealthy but shut out of the highest posts, which bred resentment.

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A system forcing colonies to trade only with Spain, at prices Spain set, blocking them from richer markets and fuelling economic resentment.

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From the 1760s the Spanish Bourbon kings tightened control, raised taxes, and handed more posts to peninsulares — sharpening criollo anger just as revolutionary ideas spread.