Social movements — civil rights change and a second movement

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Supreme Court ruled segregated public schools unconstitutional, overturning **Plessy v. Ferguson**'s 'separate but equal' — a legal breakthrough, but one the Court could not enforce on its own.

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The ruling had no built-in enforcement; many Southern school districts ignored, delayed, or violently resisted it (e.g. Little Rock 1957) for years afterward.

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Banned discrimination in employment and public places (restaurants, hotels, theatres) based on race, colour, religion, sex, or national origin; created the EEOC to enforce workplace rules.

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Johnson used his Senate experience, the emotional momentum after Kennedy's assassination, and pressure from the Birmingham and March on Washington images to push the bill through Congress in 1964.

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Banned literacy tests and sent federal registrars to Southern counties, directly enforcing the 15th Amendment; Black voter registration in the South rose sharply within a few years.

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Social/cultural: desegregated public spaces, greater Black political representation, cultural pride (Black is Beautiful). Economic: much smaller — Black family income and wealth gaps versus white Americans barely narrowed.

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Legal segregation ended, but de facto segregation (housing, school funding, policing, wealth) persisted — some argue the movement won rights but not economic equality.

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Mexican Americans were underrepresented in government and faced unequal treatment by police and courts, despite having fought in WWII and Korea.

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Farm workers, many Mexican American, endured low pay, no job security, and dangerous conditions — grievances that fed the Delano Grape Strike (1965).

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Co-founded the National Farm Workers Association (later United Farm Workers) and led the Delano Grape Strike and boycott, using nonviolent tactics inspired partly by the Black civil rights movement.

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The idea/ideology of pride in Mexican American identity and culture, rejecting assimilation and demanding equal rights — the 'role of ideas' behind the Chicano Movement.

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School segregation and curricula that ignored Mexican American history and culture, plus discrimination in housing and everyday life, pushed a new generation (especially students) to organize.