IB Geography SL — All Flashcards

The **pattern** of where people live across an area — clustered in some places, sparse in others.

The number of people per unit area, measured in **people per km²**.

**Dense** = many people per km²; **sparse** = few people per km².

**Relief, climate, water supply, soil fertility, resources.**

Flat, low land is easy to farm and build on → dense; steep mountains → sparse.

Mild, well-watered climates attract people; extreme heat, cold or drought repel them.

~95% live on ~5% of the land along the **Nile** — water + fertile silt; the desert around is dry and hot.

The far north is **too cold**; the milder south is easier to live and farm in.

Flat relief, plentiful water and fertile silt allow intensive farming.

**Explain** needs the reason/mechanism; **Describe** just states the pattern.

**2 marks per factor** — each needs a mechanism linked to population density.

The average number of children a woman has.

It **falls** — families have fewer children.

It **rises** — people live longer.

Female education + employment, and lower child mortality (also cost of children, family planning).

The economic boost when a **large share are working-age** with **few dependants**.

More workers and taxpayers, and fewer dependants → more savings and investment.

**Negative** — high fertility goes with low life expectancy, and vice versa.

They tend to **delay** childbearing for study/work and choose smaller families.

When more children survive, families no longer need many to ensure some live.

**Identify** = read a value straight off; **Estimate** = give a sensible figure from the axis.

A country's **age and sex structure** — males left, females right, youngest at the bottom.

How a population is divided between **young, working-age and old** people.

**Under-15s and over-65s**, who rely on the working-age (15–64) population.

The **balance of males to females** in a population (often per 100 females).

**Birth rate − death rate** (per 1000 per year); it **excludes** migration.

A **youthful** population — high birth rate, fast growth.

An **ageing** population — low birth rate, more elderly.

Women tend to **live longer**, so they dominate the oldest age groups.

It is often young **men** moving for work, leaving more females at the source.

**Identify** = read a value off; **Describe** = report the pattern (shape + figures), no reasons.

An urban area with a population of **10 million or more**.

In **lower- and middle-income** countries, mostly in **Asia and Africa**.

**China and India** — both have huge, fast-growing urban populations.

Housing shortages / **slums** and **traffic congestion** with air pollution (also pressure on water, sanitation and jobs).

More, **better-paid jobs** and **economic growth** (megacities drive national GDP); also better access to services.

Unplanned, often self-built housing (a **slum**) that grows when a city expands faster than it can house people.

A **better-paid job** (economic) or access to schools and hospitals nearby (social).

Megacities create wealth, drive **national GDP**, and make services cheaper to provide to people living close together.

**Highest value minus the lowest** value.

**Identify** = read it off; **Estimate** = a sensible figure from the axis; **Determine** = work out a value (e.g. a range).

Alongside slums and pollution there are real **benefits** — jobs, services and economic growth — so a balanced answer is needed.

With an explicit, **justified judgement** supported by named megacities and data.

Movement that people are **compelled** to make by a serious threat to life or livelihood -- they have no real choice.

Forced migrants are **pushed out** by danger; voluntary migrants move by **choice** (e.g. for work).

A forced migrant who has **crossed an international border** to seek safety.

Someone forced to flee who **remains inside their own country**.

**Political** (conflict, persecution), **environmental** (drought, flooding), **social** (persecution of a group) and **developmental** (dams, mines).

Violence destroys homes and threatens lives, so people flee for **safety**.

Crops fail and water runs out, so people leave to **survive**.

They strip nearby land for fuelwood and **pollute or overuse water**, degrading the local environment.

A sudden influx can **strain a host country** and raise tensions or instability.

**Syria** -- civil war from 2011 forced over 6 million people abroad as refugees.

**Three Gorges Dam, China** -- reservoir flooding relocated over 1 million residents.

**Subtract** the earlier year's value from the later year's value, and quote the units.

Choosing to move home **within your own country** (no border crossed and not forced).

**Source** = the place migrants leave; **destination** = the place they move to.

Arrivals minus departures - **positive** means a place gains people, **negative** means it loses them.

**Push:** few jobs / poor services in the source. **Pull:** more jobs / better services in the destination.

An **ageing**, shrinking community as young adults move away.

A younger, growing population but **pressure** on housing, schools and hospitals.

Source regions **lose their workforce** and stall while cities are **overwhelmed**.

Mostly **young, working-age adults** - the group the economy relies on.

**Highest value minus the lowest value** (e.g. +97,000 to -107,000 = a range of 204,000).

People may **misremember**, give vague answers or not be honest, and surveys only **sample**.

A few places gain heavily and a few lose heavily, so change is **uneven**, not uniform.

One in which the **proportion of people aged 65+ is rising** (and the share of children is falling).

**Falling fertility** (fewer children) and **rising life expectancy** (people live longer).

One that is **shrinking in total size** - deaths and emigration exceed births and immigration.

The number of people aged 65+ compared with every 100 people of working age.

Smaller workforce / shrinking tax base, plus higher **pension and healthcare** costs.

A **care burden** on families and **loneliness/isolation** among the elderly.

Raise the **retirement age**, encourage **worker immigration**, and use **pro-natalist incentives** (or automation).

A policy that aims to **raise the birth rate** - e.g. cash bonuses, childcare and parental leave.

They differ in **wealth, culture and politics** - e.g. some accept migration, others prefer pro-natalist or work-longer policies.

People **work and pay tax for longer** and draw pensions for fewer years, easing the budget.

**State/Identify** = read a value straight off the figure; **Estimate** = give a sensible figure from the axis.

The **direction** (rises/falls) AND **figures** for each group - no causes.

The average number of children a woman has during her lifetime.

It **falls** -- women marry later and choose smaller families.

Education delays childbearing; paid work raises the cost of children (also decision-making power, family planning).

A policy that **encourages** more births, e.g. baby bonuses or parental leave.

A policy that **discourages** births to slow population growth.

Girls' education laws and parliamentary quotas for women (e.g. Rwanda).

Girls who stay in school marry later, shortening the childbearing years.

**30%** -- the two shares add up to 100%.

**Estimate** = read a value off the figure; **Determine** = do a quick calculation (e.g. 100 - 70).

Weigh supporting evidence against its limits/gaps, then give a justified judgement.

**France** -- generous parental leave and child benefits to lift low fertility.

It shows each group as a proportion of the whole, so the gap is clear at a glance.

The number of **dependants** (under 15 and 65+) **per 100 working-age people**.

People aged roughly **15-64** - the main workers and taxpayers.

People **under 15** or **65+**, who are mostly outside the main workforce.

The economic boost when the **working-age share is large** and **dependency is low**.

Each worker supports fewer dependants, so more income can be earned, taxed, saved and invested.

A **bigger workforce + tax base**, and **more savings to invest** (also attracts investment).

As the working-age bulge ages, the elderly share rises and the dependency ratio climbs again.

An urban area with a population of over **10 million** people.

More and better-paid **jobs**, and better **access to services** (hospitals, schools, universities).

**State** = read the exact value off the chart; **Identify** = pick out the region/category described.

**2 marks per gain** - each needs development; a named country is expected for full marks.

Moving or holding a person by **force, fraud or coercion** in order to **exploit** them.

Using a person for profit against their will — forced labour, sex work or domestic servitude.

How exposed a group is to harm, and how little it can cope with or recover from it.

Someone forced to flee home who **stays inside their own country** (a refugee crosses a border).

An **IDP** remains in their own country; a **refugee crosses an international border**.

**Poverty, weak law enforcement, conflict/disaster, and discrimination.**

**Tougher laws/prosecution** and **awareness campaigns** (also border checks, victim support).

It warns people about **fake job offers**, so fewer are tricked into being recruited.

Jailing them raises the **risk and cost** of the crime, deterring offenders.

Weak tax revenue means they **cannot fund** water, sanitation and waste services for large camps.

**Women and children** make up the majority of detected victims.

**Weigh similarities against differences**, then reach a clear **judgement**.

A **rigid slab** of the Earth's crust and upper mantle that moves over the soft asthenosphere.

**Convection currents** in the mantle, driven by heat from the Earth's interior.

**Constructive** (divergent - move apart), **destructive** (convergent - subduction), **conservative** (transform - slide past).

**Explosive composite volcanoes** + the **largest, deepest earthquakes** (and tsunamis).

**Gentle shield volcanoes** (runny basaltic lava) + **small, shallow** earthquakes.

**No volcanoes** (no magma made) but **large, shallow earthquakes** (e.g. San Andreas).

Subduction makes **high-silica andesitic** magma - thick and sticky, so it traps gas and bursts out violently.

It is **low-silica, runny, low-viscosity basaltic** lava that flows a long way before cooling.

A **mantle plume** producing volcanoes **away from any plate margin** (e.g. Hawaii).

A sudden **displacement of the sea floor** (quake/eruption/landslide) displaces water; waves **radiate out** and grow at the coast.

It takes a long time for enough **strain energy** to build between locked plates before a high-magnitude release.

A contrast of margin types linked to hazard character, a named example, the hotspot/intraplate exception, and a clear judgement.

The **downhill movement of rock, soil and debris under gravity**, when the driving force beats the resisting force.

How resistant a slope is to failing — high friction and strong material make a slope stable.

The curved or flat plane along which material **breaks away and moves** during a mass movement.

A **primary** hazard is the original event (e.g. an earthquake); a **secondary** hazard is one it triggers (e.g. a rock fall).

**Soil creep** — only millimetres a year; spotted from tilted poles, curved trunks and terracettes.

**Debris flows** (very high water content) and **rock falls** (very fast) — both move almost instantly.

Water **adds weight** and **lubricates the slip surface**, lowering friction, so material moves faster.

Water content and gradient (also sediment size, geology and bare vegetation).

Undercutting the base and deforestation (also building, waste heaps, disturbing drainage).

When it is **triggered** by another event — an earthquake or heavy rain dislodging loose cliff blocks.

Nevado del Ruiz 1985 lahar (Armero), or the Vargas 1999 debris flows, Venezuela.

A valid factor (1 mark) **plus** development of how it works — the mechanism (1 mark).

The point **underground** where the rock ruptures and the earthquake begins.

The point on the **surface** directly above the focus.

**Magnitude** = the energy released (moment-magnitude scale); **intensity** = how strongly the shaking is felt at a place, which falls with distance.

A **shallow** focus causes far more violent surface shaking and damage than a deep focus of the same magnitude.

A series of large sea waves caused when an undersea earthquake (or landslide) suddenly **displaces the seabed and water column**.

**Tsunamis, landslides, liquefaction and fires** - knock-on hazards triggered by the shaking.

Saturated, soft ground loses strength and behaves like a **liquid** when shaken hard, so buildings sink, tilt or collapse.

Most (landslides, liquefaction, fires) **weaken** with distance from the epicentre; a **tsunami** is the exception and stays destructive far away.

Mainly the **plate margin**: subduction (destructive) zones give the largest, most frequent quakes + tsunamis; constructive margins give smaller, shallow quakes.

**Human triggers** - filling large reservoirs, or deep fluid extraction/injection - can set off earthquakes away from any margin.

Despite being a smaller quake, Haiti hit a poor, densely built city with weak buildings and no preparedness - **vulnerability**, not geophysics, drove the toll.

Two named events compared, two+ developed geophysical factors with data, a weighing of geophysics vs vulnerability, and a clear judgement.

Any threat from a volcano - **lava flows, pyroclastic flows, lahars, ashfall (tephra)** and toxic gases.

The **downslope movement of rock, soil or debris under gravity** - rockfalls, landslides, debris flows, slumps.

A **fast, super-hot cloud of gas and ash** - the deadliest volcanic hazard, impossible to outrun.

A **volcanic mudflow** of ash and water that races down valleys and buries settlements.

Fragments thrown out by an eruption that **collapse roofs and ruin farmland**.

The event that sets a slope failing - **heavy rain, an earthquake, undercutting, or an eruption**.

It is **fast and super-hot**, so there is no escape; lava is **slow**, destroying property but giving time to leave.

Its **type and speed**, the **warning time**, **population density**, and the people's **vulnerability** (wealth, housing).

A small eruption melted summit ice; **lahars** buried Armero, killing about **23,000** - warnings were not acted on.

A moderate eruption killed nobody, but its **ash cloud grounded European flights** - a huge economic impact.

The earthquake triggered **landslides** on deforested slopes; over **200,000** died, worsened by poverty and weak housing.

**Identify** the modal band, **estimate** by counting events above a threshold, and read coordinates/distance off the **key or scale**.

**Risk = Hazard x Vulnerability / Capacity to cope** - impact depends on exposure and coping ability, not just the event's size.

How **susceptible** a community is to harm from a hazard, set by economic, social, demographic and political factors.

The ability to **prepare for, withstand and recover** from a hazard - wealth, governance, planning and warning systems.

How seriously people **judge a threat**, which shapes whether they prepare or ignore it.

**Economic, social, demographic and political** factors.

It forces people into flimsy homes on risky land with no insurance, so buildings collapse and recovery is slow.

Strong governance brings enforced building codes, warnings and planning; weak governance leaves people unprotected.

Many elderly or very young people struggle to flee and recover, raising vulnerability.

Mw 7.0 quake; ~**220,000** deaths from poverty, weak governance, no enforced codes and a dense capital - very high vulnerability.

Mw 6.3 quake; only **185** deaths - a wealthy, well-governed city with enforced codes, insurance and preparedness.

Colombian eruption; a lahar buried Armero killing ~**23,000** because warnings were poor and ignored - low capacity to cope.

A range of developed factors (economic/social/demographic/political), named case studies with data, a weighing of importance, and a judgement.

Everything a place does **before** a geophysical hazard to **lower human vulnerability** (prediction, warning, zoning, resilient design).

How **exposed** and **unable to cope** a population is when a hazard strikes — the risk of death, injury and damage.

**Prediction & monitoring**, **warning & evacuation**, **land-use zoning**, and **resilient building design**.

Instruments (seismometers, GPS, gas sensors) detect warning signs, giving time to **warn and evacuate** before an eruption.

Maps the hazard and **bans building** in exposed zones (lahar paths, low coast), so fewer people sit in the danger zone.

Hazard-proof construction (cross-bracing, lava walls, slope gabions) keeps buildings standing so people survive.

Unlike many eruptions, quakes give **no reliable warning signs** before they strike — so warning systems offer only seconds.

Chile's **larger** quake killed far fewer because it **enforced building codes**; Haiti did not. Design works if a place can afford it.

Early warning saved many lives, but the tsunami **topped the sea walls** and over 18,000 died — defences fail if the hazard exceeds the plan.

Hazard maps warned of lahars, but the **warning was not acted on** and ~23,000 died — prediction only works if communicated and heeded.

Engineering (barriers, channels, seawater spraying) that **redirects slow lava** away from towns — e.g. Etna and Heimaey 1973.

A range of strategies with **named evidence**, a **balanced** view of limits, and a **judgement** tied to cost and development level.

The **capacity of people and places to absorb a hazard, recover, and adapt** so future events cause less harm.

How **exposed and susceptible** a community is to loss when a hazard strikes; resilience reduces it.

**Response** = immediate emergency actions (rescue, aid); **recovery** = the longer rebuilding and restoring of normal life.

**Pre-event** = before the hazard (prediction, codes, preparation); **post-event** = after (rescue, aid, reconstruction).

Coordinated search and rescue; communications tech (drones/satellite); plus medical aid, reconstruction/retrofitting, insurance, hazard mapping.

**Drones** find survivors where roads are cut; **satellite/remote sensing** maps the worst-hit zones; **social media** crowd-sources need.

Poor building quality, weak governance and limited services gave **high vulnerability** (~220,000 deaths) and a slow, aid-dependent recovery.

Strict codes limited quake deaths, but the **tsunami overtopped sea walls** and caused the Fukushima crisis - resilience improved via re-zoning the coast.

A Colombian eruption whose **lahar buried Armero** (~23,000 deaths) after warnings were ignored - a failure of preparation and response.

Population pressure and urbanisation put more people on fragile slopes/coasts; climate change brings heavier rain triggering more mass movement.

Slope stabilisation, land-use zoning, building codes, prediction/warning and education reduce vulnerability faster than exposure grows.

Balanced weighing (raise vs lower, or works vs fails), named events with data, accurate terms, and a justified conclusion.

The **free time** left after work, study and chores - used for rest or activity (passive or active).

**Who takes part, how much, and in what** - it is very uneven across groups and places.

The **share of a group** that takes part in a leisure activity or sport.

**Wealth / disposable income** - it raises participation by buying time, equipment and access.

Your **age and life stage** (student, working parent, retiree) - it reshapes how much free time you have.

Higher development brings more **wealth, leisure time, facilities and fairer attitudes** - lifting participation.

**Free time** to take part AND the **money, facilities and acceptance** to actually do it.

Disposable income pays for **kit, travel and club fees**, so wealthier people take part more; cost is a barrier for the poor.

Equal-rights laws and role models (e.g. **Title IX**) open sport to women; cultural exclusion keeps female participation low.

**London 2012** legacy facilities, **Title IX** (USA equal funding for women), or **Norway's** low-cost sport-for-all model.

Cities have nearby pools, pitches and stadiums; remote or poor areas lack facilities, so urban residents take part more.

Both sides (economic AND social/cultural), named examples, accurate terms, and a justified judgement.

Travel away from home for **leisure, recreation or business**, staying at least one night.

From about **25 million** trips in 1950 to over a **billion** international arrivals a year today.

The number of visitors **crossing a border** into a country each year.

A destination that attracts **very large** visitor numbers (a city, resort or honeypot site).

**Highest value minus the lowest value** — the spread of the data.

The **middle value** once the data is ordered (with 9 values, the 5th; with an even count, average the two middle values).

The period of **fastest growth** — the biggest jump in visitor numbers between two years.

Reviews/influencers raise **awareness** -> a place looks 'must-see' -> easy booking turns interest into trips -> arrivals **surge**.

**Cheaper air travel** and **rising incomes** (also more leisure time, technology, social media and mega-events).

**Shocks** — recessions, conflict, disease outbreaks and travel bans cut arrivals sharply.

It grew into a hotspot via an **airline hub** (Emirates), attractions and heavy **marketing** — engineered growth.

The most visitors a place can take before the **experience or environment** is damaged (e.g. Venice, the Lake District).

The **actual ground** a facility occupies — flat land, snow slopes, a coast, a river bank.

Its **position relative to** roads, cities, airports and the people it serves.

How **easily visitors can reach it** — by road, rail, air and parking.

The number of **visitors a site can take** before quality or the environment suffers.

A place that attracts **very large numbers of tourists** into a small area.

Relief/snow and climate (also scenery, water and a large carrying-capacity site).

Accessibility and investment (also marketing/image and cheap land).

A cheap, well-connected **brownfield** site — **accessibility** and land availability were the deciding human factors.

Its physical lagoon site made it a honeypot, but mass tourism now overwhelms its tiny **carrying capacity**.

Almost no physical pull — **investment**, airports and marketing built a tourism hotspot from human factors alone.

Name a factor (1) + **develop** how it shapes that facility's location (1).

Both sides developed, **named case studies**, accurate terms and a **justified judgement** weighing the factors.

**Economic**, **social** and **environmental** - and each can be **positive or negative**.

Visitor spending circulates: it pays **local wages** that are re-spent locally, creating **further jobs and income**.

The share of tourist spending that flows **out** of the destination - to foreign-owned hotels, airlines and TNCs.

A country's planned use of tourism (ecotourism, heritage, mega-events) to drive **development**.

Small-scale, low-impact **nature tourism** that funds conservation and benefits local communities.

The number of visitors a place can take **before** the experience or environment is damaged.

The **area a facility draws visitors from** - set by its threshold and range.

**Threshold** = the minimum users a facility needs to survive; **range** = the maximum distance people will travel to it.

Positive: jobs + the multiplier effect. Negative: leakage to TNCs, rising rents, seasonal low-paid work.

Up to 20-30 million visitors vs ~50,000 residents; crowding and Airbnb raise rents, so it added a day-tripper entry fee.

Low-impact nature tourism funds **national parks** and rural jobs - a sustainable, low-leakage national strategy.

Costs AND benefits across strands, **named case studies**, accurate terms (multiplier, leakage), and a justified judgement.

**Eastings first, then northings** - along the corridor, then up the stairs; split each square into tenths for the exact point.

1 cm on the map = 50 000 cm = **500 m** on the ground (so 2 cm = 1 km).

A line joining points of **equal height**; close together = steep, widely spaced = gentle.

A single labelled point on the map giving an **exact altitude** in metres.

**Subtract** the lower spot height from the higher one - e.g. 775 m - 95 m = 680 m gained.

Measure the route, then read it against the **scale bar** (1:50 000 -> 2 cm = 1 km, 1 cm = 500 m).

The **bearing of the second place from the first** (N, NE, E... or an exact bearing in degrees).

How well a place fits a leisure use, judged from **map evidence** - access, flat land, accommodation, scenery.

A **reason PLUS specific map evidence** (a named road, campsite, contour or grid reference) - not a bare assertion.

**No car park, no station, narrow congested streets, no main road** - read off the surrounding map.

Those are **water/beach** activities; the question wants land activities like walking, birdwatching, cycling or rock climbing.

The ground is **steep** there - the climb is harder and slower, so rest stops and lodges cluster on gentler ground.

A **large international sporting event** with global participation, media and investment - the Olympics, FIFA World Cup and Paralympics.

Through **global media**, **transnational sponsors** and worldwide flows of **athletes, tourists and money**.

The **long-term effects** left after the event - stadiums, transport, regeneration, or debt and unused venues.

The **global influence and prestige** a country gains by hosting and being seen positively on the world stage.

Each host outdoes the last with new stadiums, villages, transport and security - hosting now costs **billions** of US dollars.

They can **re-use** existing infrastructure (lower marginal cost) and **renew their soft power** each time.

**More women** (near half by 2020) and **more disabled athletes** (the Paralympics) - plus more nations and minority athletes.

Disabled athletes are now seen as **elite role models** with prime-time media coverage, shifting public attitudes.

The **host-city contract requires** a Paralympics alongside the Olympics, plus government funding and promotion.

**Regeneration / infrastructure** - e.g. London 2012 transformed Stratford with parkland, transport and housing.

**Debt and white-elephant venues** - e.g. several Rio 2016 venues fell derelict soon after the Games.

A **named host**, a **balanced** account of benefits AND costs, evaluation across places/scales/perspectives, and a **justified judgement**.

Travel to **another country** for leisure, business or visiting relatives, measured as **international arrivals**.

A **specialised, small-scale** form aimed at a particular interest — film, adventure, heritage or eco tourism.

Visiting places used as **film or TV sets** — e.g. New Zealand for *The Lord of the Rings*.

Travel for **physical, often risky activities** — bungee jumping, white-water rafting, trekking.

People living abroad with ties to a homeland; they drive **visiting-friends-and-relatives** travel, lifting arrivals.

The share of tourist spending that flows **out** of the host country, often to foreign-owned **TNCs**.

**Mass** = large numbers, cheap, few resorts; **niche** = specialised, smaller, **higher spend per head**.

Marketing/branding and better accessibility (also events and a growing diaspora).

Conflict/unrest and disease outbreaks (also disasters, poor reviews, a bad exchange rate).

It gives a **unique draw**, attracts **higher-spending** visitors and creates jobs (the multiplier) plus free publicity.

**New Zealand** — *LOTR* / *The Hobbit* sites (Hobbiton); tours draw fans and support local jobs.

Both sides (gains vs leakage/overtourism), named examples with data, stakeholders/scales, and a justified judgement.

The **number of visitors** a place can take before its environment, infrastructure or community is **harmed**.

A place that attracts **very large numbers of visitors** — a beach resort, historic city or national park.

**Environmental** = the limit set by the natural resource (water, soil, wildlife). **Perceptual** = the point where it feels too crowded to enjoy.

Visitor numbers that **exceed** the carrying capacity, damaging the place and locals' quality of life.

Tourism that meets visitors' needs **without** degrading the environment or community for the future — staying within carrying capacity.

**Small-scale, low-impact** tourism in natural areas that aims to **conserve** them and benefit local people.

Footpath **erosion**, litter, water/air pollution, or disturbed wildlife — harm to **nature**.

**Second homes** raise house prices so locals out-migrate, plus crowding and loss of local culture — harm to the **community**.

Once **perceptual carrying capacity** is exceeded the place feels too crowded and damaged, so visitors stop coming.

**Cap/charge visitors** and **harden footpaths or create protected areas** — also vehicle limits and ecotourism.

Long-haul **flights add a carbon footprint** and profit can **leak** abroad, so local gains may not make global tourism sustainable.

Two+ developed strategies with a named example, a weighing of effectiveness and stakeholder conflict, and a clear judgement — in the right environment.

As the **average daily calorie (energy) supply per person**, in kcal/person/day.

A diet that is wrong in some way — the umbrella term covering **both undernutrition and over-nutrition**.

**Undernutrition** = too little food or too few nutrients; **over-nutrition** = too much energy or an unbalanced diet.

The **% of a population** not getting enough calories to be healthy.

When all people can **reliably access enough safe, nutritious food**.

**Affordability**, **availability**, and **quality and safety**.

Whether people can **afford** food — income, food prices and the cost of a healthy diet.

It **weakens the immune system**, so undernourished people (esp. children) die more from infections like measles and diarrhoea.

It drives **non-communicable diseases** — obesity, type-2 diabetes, heart disease and some cancers.

As affluence rises, diets shift from staples to **meat, dairy, sugar and processed food**, raising over-nutrition.

Rising affluence and advertising/social media (also technology, trade, migration, culture/religion).

Both under- and over-nutrition, non-nutritional causes (water, sanitation, overcrowding, poverty) weighed, named examples, and a judgement.

A number used to **measure how healthy a population is** and compare places (life expectancy, mortality, morbidity, calorie intake).

The **average number of years a newborn is expected to live**; it rises with development.

Deaths of children **under 1 per 1,000 live births** - a sensitive measure of health care and poverty.

Deaths of **mothers from pregnancy or childbirth per 100,000 live births**.

The **amount or rate of disease** (illness) in a population - not deaths.

An **infectious** disease linked to deprivation - e.g. malaria, cholera, TB.

A **chronic / lifestyle** disease linked to wealth - e.g. obesity, type-2 diabetes, heart disease.

The **shift** in a country's disease pattern from infectious diseases of poverty towards chronic diseases of affluence as it develops.

Richer **diets**, **sedentary lifestyles** and **longer lives** mean more people develop chronic disease.

Weak **health-care access**, poor diet, unsafe water and remoteness mean complications go untreated.

Take the **band from the key** the area is shaded with - not a made-up exact figure.

Two or three **developed** points, each with a **mechanism** linking it to a health outcome, plus a **real example**.

The whole chain from **production → processing → distribution → consumption**, with inputs and outputs at each stage.

**Inputs** = energy, water, labour, seeds, fertiliser put in; **outputs** = food (yield) plus waste and emissions.

The **output ÷ input ratio** — how much food energy you get for the energy you put in.

**Intensive** = high inputs per hectare for high yield; **extensive** = low inputs spread over a large area.

Low-input crops like **cassava** are efficient (high output ÷ input); intensive **beef** and heated greenhouses are not.

It adds **fossil-fuel energy** (tractors, pumps, fertiliser) and cuts **human/animal labour energy**.

Climate change, drought (the Sahel), flooding, pests (fall armyworm) and soil erosion/salinisation.

The spread from the 1960s of **high-yield wheat and rice**, fertiliser and irrigation — e.g. in India — raising output unevenly.

How a new method, seed or technology **spreads** from where it started to other farmers and regions.

**Physical** (climate/water), **economic** (cost/credit), **social** (education/trust) and **political** (government support).

**High energy demand**, expensive set-up, a **limited crop range** (leafy greens) and heavy technology dependence.

Two+ developed factors, a named example (Green Revolution), a weighing of importance, and a clear judgement.

When **all people, at all times, have reliable access** to enough safe, nutritious food for an active, healthy life.

**Unreliable or insufficient access** to enough safe, nutritious food - it can be chronic or sudden.

An **extreme, widespread food shortage** causing mass hunger, malnutrition and a sharp rise in deaths.

**Availability** (enough food), **access** (people can afford and reach it) and **stability** (a reliable supply over time).

**Availability** = is there enough food in the area? **Access** = can people afford and physically reach it?

**Physical/environmental, economic, political and social** factors - and they combine.

It forces farmers off the land, destroys harvests and **blocks roads and aid**, so food cannot be grown or delivered.

Illness such as **HIV/AIDS or malaria** removes adults from the workforce, so fewer can farm and incomes fall.

Low incomes mean families **cannot afford food** when prices rise, so a poor harvest tips them into hunger.

An African belt (Niger, Chad, Mali) with recurring crises: **drought** triggers them, but **poverty, population growth and conflict** turn shortage into famine.

High-yield crops, irrigation and fertiliser in **India** from the 1960s sharply raised output and helped end recurrent famine in Punjab.

Factors from **2+ categories** developed, a **named located example**, a weighing of how they interact, and a clear judgement.

The way a disease **spreads outward across space and through a population** over time.

**Expansion** = the disease stays and ripples outward from its source. **Relocation** = an infected person moves and carries it to a new area.

A disease spread by an organism such as a mosquito — e.g. **malaria** or **dengue**.

A disease spread through contaminated water — e.g. **cholera** or typhoid.

Anything that **slows or blocks** a disease's spread — mountains, dry seasons, clean water, nets, vaccination, quarantine.

A **warm, wet climate** (vectors breed) or **rainfall/flooding** (contaminates water supplies).

**Air travel/migration** (relocation diffusion) or **overcrowding with poor sanitation** (fast person-to-person spread).

**Poverty and weak healthcare** — no money for nets, drugs, clean water or clinics, so the disease is not stopped.

After the 2010 earthquake, cholera was **relocated** in, then spread by **expansion diffusion** through camps with no clean water; tens of thousands died.

Vector-borne by the **Anopheles** mosquito; a warm wet climate gives year-round breeding while **poverty** limits nets and drugs.

**Heavy rain and flooding** mix sewage into wells and rivers, contaminating drinking water again.

A **named disease + place** of the right type, **two+ developed factors**, a **weighing** of relative importance (often over time), and a clear **judgement**.

Any person, group or organisation with an **interest in and influence on** what people eat and how healthy they are.

**Governments**, **TNCs / agribusiness**, **international organisations & NGOs**, and **individuals & communities**.

Set **laws, taxes, subsidies and food-safety rules** and run public-health campaigns — e.g. a sugar tax.

**Grow, process, price and advertise** food worldwide, shaping diets for profit (e.g. Nestle, supermarkets, fast food).

The **WFP** and **FAO** (UN bodies) and charities like **Oxfam** and **ActionAid**; the **WHO** for disease.

**Global:** the WHO issuing worldwide sugar guidance. **Local:** a government sugar tax or a town's food bank.

It can cause **dependency** (farmers lose the incentive to grow food) and **depress local prices**, harming food security long-term.

Recurrent drought-famine where the **WFP** and NGOs give aid, but weak governance and aid dependency can deepen the crisis.

It shows stakeholders are **double-edged** — NGOs/WHO saved lives, yet the outbreak was linked to poor sanitation around an aid base.

1960s government + agribusiness push of **high-yield seeds, fertiliser and irrigation** — big yield gains but widened inequality and harmed soils.

The same stakeholder can **help and harm** — aid saves lives but causes dependency; agribusiness feeds millions but widens inequality.

Two+ **developed stakeholders** with **named examples**, a **weighing** of relative power/limits, and a clear **justified judgement**.

Reliable physical and economic **access** to enough safe, nutritious food.

**Availability** = how much food is produced/supplied; **security** also needs **access**, affordability and stability.

Meeting present food needs **without depleting** the land, water and climate future generations need.

Crops or animals whose **DNA is altered** to raise yield or add pest/drought/frost resistance.

Growing crops in **stacked indoor layers**, year-round, on a tiny land footprint with recycled water.

Meat **cultured from animal cells** without raising livestock — far less land and water than conventional meat.

Feeds more people with **no new land or water**, and saves the water, energy and fertiliser already used.

**Biodiversity loss** — wide single-variety planting plus herbicide use removes wild plants and insects.

**Inequality** — patented, costly seed leaves poorer farmers behind richer ones.

High-yield grain made India self-sufficient (availability) but **drained aquifers** and worsened inequality (sustainability cost).

Diseases like **malaria** (sub-Saharan Africa) and **cholera** (Haiti 2010) are far cheaper to **prevent** (nets, vaccines, clean water) than to treat.

A structured, evidenced argument, **named located examples**, both sides weighed, and a **justified conclusion**.

The **Central Business District** — a city's commercial core (shops, offices, banks) and most accessible point.

The **price or rent** of a piece of land. Highest at the CBD, falling towards the edge.

The single **most expensive site** in a city, usually a main CBD junction.

The idea that each land use will only **pay so much** for a site; the **highest bidder** wins the most accessible land.

Accessibility drops with distance, so demand falls — and lower demand means **lower land value**.

Land use in **rings** around the CBD: CBD, inner city, then successively newer housing outwards.

Land use in **wedges (sectors)** growing out from the CBD along **transport routes**.

It needs **cheap, spacious, accessible** land and cannot out-bid retail/offices for the costly CBD.

**Physical** (relief, coast), **economic** (land value, accessibility) and **political** (planning, zoning).

Rapid growth and migration leave **too few formal jobs**, so people rely on small-scale informal work to survive.

**Planning/zoning** — councils fix where activities can locate (e.g. Singapore zones industry onto reclaimed coast).

Two+ developed factors, a named city, a weighing of their relative importance, and a clear judgement.

The rising **proportion** of a population living in **urban areas** (towns and cities).

**Urbanisation** = the rising **share** that is urban; **urban growth** = the rising **number** of people in a city.

A city with a population of **more than 10 million** people (e.g. Tokyo, Lagos, Mumbai).

**Births minus deaths** - a youthful city population grows itself even without migration.

People moving from the **countryside to the city**, drawn by jobs, schools and hospitals.

**Push** = things driving people OUT of rural areas (drought, poverty); **pull** = things drawing them INTO cities (jobs, services).

**Natural increase** (high birth rates) and **rural-urban migration** - together fastest in Africa and Asia.

Better **schools and hospitals**, family ties, or escaping rural hardship (NOT jobs/wages, which are economic).

**Falling birth rates**, the rural population running out, or out-migration - urbanisation nears its ceiling (e.g. Tokyo, Europe).

Growth outpaces formal house-building, so migrants self-build slums (Makoko, Dharavi) lacking water and sanitation.

Housing, clean water and sanitation, jobs, transport/congestion, waste and pollution - all strained by the scale and pace of growth.

Two+ developed challenges, a named city (Lagos, Mumbai), a weighing of the scale/pace of growth, and a clear judgement.

The **decline of manufacturing industry** in a city — factory closures, lost jobs and derelict land.

People and activity moving **outwards** from the city centre — suburbanisation and counter-urbanisation.

People and activity moving **back towards** the centre — re-urbanisation and gentrification.

The outward spread of people and housing into the **edge of the city** (the suburbs).

People leaving the city for **smaller towns and the countryside**.

People and investment **returning** to the inner city after a period of decline.

Wealthier residents move into a run-down inner-city area, **renovating** housing and raising land values.

Cheaper labour/land abroad (globalisation) and **automation** (also cramped costly sites + the shift to a service economy).

Its **car industry collapsed** through relocation and automation, leaving mass job loss and derelict buildings.

Winners: incoming wealthy residents, developers, the city. Losers: original low-income residents **priced out** by rising rents.

Regeneration and service jobs help some areas/groups, but others face **displacement** or lasting decline where no investment follows.

Both sides (gains vs costs), **named cities**, both directions of movement, and a **justified** 'uneven' judgement.

The **damage city growth and living do to the local environment** - to air, climate, water, land and green space.

A city being **warmer than the rural land around it**, especially at night.

How much sunlight a surface **reflects**. Dark concrete and tarmac have **low albedo**, so they absorb and store heat.

A city's own **local climate** - its temperature, wind and rainfall - changed by buildings, surfaces and activity.

Low-albedo concrete absorbs and re-releases heat, tall buildings trap it, less vegetation cools it, and traffic/industry add **waste heat**.

**Hard surfaces** (lower albedo -> hotter) and **emissions** (thicken the pollution dome and trap heat); also tall buildings + waste heat.

**Economic** (high land value -> built over for profit) and **political** (weak planning protection) pressure as the city grows.

Environmental: cleaner air / cooler microclimate. Social: fewer accidents, less noise, more walking and cycling.

An **Ultra Low Emission Zone** charging dirty vehicles to enter; central roadside nitrogen-dioxide fell, though pollution shifted to some edges.

Groups of blocks closed to through-traffic, turning road space into greenery - cuts emissions, noise and heat but displaces some traffic.

Heavy smog from traffic, coal and industry; tackled by **coal-to-gas switching, factory relocation and traffic limits**.

Two+ strategies developed with a **named city** + data, a weighing of how **successful** each is, and a clear **judgement**.

Concentrated lack of the things needed for a decent life — **secure work, income, housing, health, education and safety** — in part of a city.

Measures used to map deprivation: **unemployment, low income, poor health, overcrowding, low qualifications and high crime**.

Several deprivation problems occurring **together** in the same place, reinforcing one another.

A self-reinforcing loop: **few jobs -> low income -> poor housing/health -> few qualifications -> low skills + no investment -> still no jobs.**

It concentrates in particular neighbourhoods (old inner-city, social housing, informal settlements), not spread evenly — so cities show sharp rich/poor contrasts.

Steep slopes, marshy/flood-prone or contaminated land — cheap, hazardous land the poor are pushed onto (e.g. hillside favelas in Rio).

It is an **economic** factor (land values fall with distance), so it scores nothing on an Outline asking for a **physical** site factor.

Few legitimate jobs, poor lighting and neglected space, and low policing/investment combine to raise offending.

Low-income: rapid migration -> informal settlements (Mumbai, Lagos). High-income: deindustrialisation + planning (Detroit, Glasgow). Same underlying cycle.

Residents, local/national **government**, **police**, **businesses** and **community groups** — with very different power.

It can renew housing but **displace** residents and destroy informal jobs/communities (e.g. evictions in Lagos) — a key essay tension.

Named cities as evidence, a balanced/weighed argument (causes across development levels, or stakeholder roles), accurate terms and a justified conclusion.

Planning a city to meet today's needs **without using up resources or harming the environment** for the future.

The area of **land and water** a city needs to **supply its resources and absorb its waste**.

A city designed to be **environmentally low-impact** — renewables, green space, recycling, compact form.

A city that uses **sensors, data and digital networks** to run services (traffic, energy, waste) more efficiently.

A layout where residents reach work, shops, schools and health care within a **15-minute walk or cycle**.

Grouping several street blocks and **removing through-traffic** to reclaim space for people and green areas.

Homes sit near services, so people **walk or cycle** instead of driving -> lower transport emissions.

**High consumption, wealth, car ownership and fossil-fuel energy** raise the per-person footprint (e.g. New York).

**Sustainable** = the low-footprint outcome; **smart** = the **data/technology tool** used to get there.

Barcelona (superblocks), Curitiba (bus rapid transit), Singapore (smart traffic + water), Masdar/Songdo (built eco/smart cities).

**Cost, equity, privacy and retrofitting** existing megacities — Masdar and Songdo ran over budget and under-occupied.

Both sides (gains AND limits), **named cities/schemes**, accurate terms, and a justified judgement.

A city's ability to **absorb shocks and stresses** (floods, heat, decline, rapid growth) and keep functioning and recovering.

The physical and service backbone of a city: **transport, water, sanitation, energy, waste, housing and digital networks**.

**Who decides and how** a city is run — government, business, NGOs and residents planning, funding and running the city.

Improving or extending existing systems — e.g. **retrofitting old pipes** or adding metro lines under a working city.

Designing today's infrastructure to **cope with future climate and population pressures**.

**Long-term concentrated poverty**, poor housing and weak services in parts of a city.

Land is already in use (resettlement/sprawl), ageing systems, high cost, site limits and community/planning opposition.

Rapid growth outpaces supply, so services break down — e.g. **Lagos**, where traffic, flooding and informal areas spread.

Where you build transport decides where the city expands — **Curitiba** built BRT corridors first and steered dense growth along them.

Building cities to cope with shocks: **flood defences, drainage, zoning off flood plains, green space and future-proofing**.

Strengths: flood defences and green space cut damage and cool the city. Weaknesses: high cost; rapid growth and low incomes limit it.

Both strengths AND weaknesses, a named city (Singapore, Barcelona), and a balanced, justified evaluation.

Numbers locating a place: **eastings** (read across) first, then **northings** (read up) -- 'along the corridor, then up the stairs'.

**Four-figure** names a whole grid square (1911); **six-figure** splits the square into **tenths** to pin an exact point (194115).

Find the four-figure square, then estimate **tenths across** (easting) and **tenths up** (northing), and combine.

1 cm on the map = **0.5 km** (500 m) on the ground; multiply measured cm by 0.5 to get km.

3 x 0.5 = **1.5 km** on the ground.

Stand at A and face B; read **N/NE/E/SE/S/SW/W/NW** from the way you must travel.

Find the time on the x-axis, go up to the line/bar, read the **y-axis value** across -- quote it with its unit.

Read both peak values and **subtract** the smaller from the larger.

The **exact figure with its unit** (km, grid digits, index value) -- a trend word alone scores nothing.

A congestion index (Lagos), a pollution time-series (Barcelona superblocks), or a road-pricing graph (Singapore).

Incoming short-wave **solar** radiation balancing outgoing long-wave **terrestrial** radiation, keeping Earth's temperature steady.

The Sun sends **short-wave** energy in; the cooler Earth re-emits **long-wave** heat out.

The share of incoming radiation a surface **reflects** straight back, without warming it.

The reflectivity of the **Earth's surface** - high for ice and desert, low for ocean and forest.

Fresh **snow/ice** and bright **desert** sand (also cloud tops) reflect most radiation.

Greenhouse gases **absorb** outgoing long-wave heat and **re-radiate** some back down, warming the lower atmosphere.

About **33C colder** and largely frozen.

**Water vapour** and **methane** (also nitrous oxide and ozone).

The **extra** warming when **human activity** raises greenhouse-gas levels, trapping more heat than the natural effect.

Like greenhouse glass, the gases let **short-wave** light in but trap some **long-wave** heat leaving.

About **30%** of incoming solar radiation is reflected straight back to space.

**Outline** = give the main points briefly; you do not need a full developed mechanism unless asked to Explain.

The balance between incoming solar energy and energy radiated back to space; it sets Earth's temperature.

Higher **solar output** (sunspot cycle) and **orbital (Milankovitch) cycles**.

A large **volcanic eruption** -> sulfate aerosols -> **global dimming**.

A fall in sunlight reaching the ground because particles in the air reflect or block it.

Aerosols thrown high into the atmosphere reflect sunlight back to space, so less reaches the surface (cooling for 1-3 years).

Slow changes in Earth's orbit shape, axial tilt and wobble over tens of thousands of years that change incoming sunlight and drive ice ages.

A change that **amplifies itself** -- the change triggers more of the same change.

Warming melts bright reflective ice; the darker surface absorbs more heat; that warms it further, melting more ice.

Warming thaws permafrost, releasing methane (a greenhouse gas), which traps more heat, thawing more permafrost.

Its aerosols cooled global temperatures by about **0.5 degrees C** for ~a year -- natural cooling / global dimming.

Natural forcings are small or cooling recently, while CO2 from fossil fuels has risen sharply since ~1850, tracking the rapid warming.

**Carbon dioxide (CO2)** and **methane (CH4)**.

A gas that traps heat in the atmosphere, warming the Earth.

Extra warming caused by **human-added** greenhouse gases on top of the natural effect.

How reflective a surface is — bright surfaces reflect sunlight (high albedo), dark surfaces absorb it (low albedo).

**Burning fossil fuels** (energy, transport, industry) and **deforestation**.

More **livestock** (cattle) and more **rice farming**; also fossil-fuel leaks and landfill.

Dark tarmac and roofs **lower** albedo, so more sunlight is absorbed and the surface warms.

More export manufacturing burns more fuel (CO2) and more long-distance shipping/flying adds emissions.

Early growth adds industry and cars (rise); later, wealthy economies can afford clean energy and services (fall).

Read the value **straight off** the graph or table — no explanation needed.

It removes trees that absorbed CO2, and burning them releases stored carbon.

How much warmer or cooler a place is than its long-term average (e.g. +12C = 12C above normal).

**Sea-level rise, falling albedo (ice melt), shifting biomes, more extreme weather.**

How much sunlight a surface reflects -- bright ice/snow = high albedo, dark ocean/land = low albedo.

Bright reflective ice is replaced by **dark** ocean/land that absorbs more heat -- a positive feedback.

**Thermal expansion** (warm water expands) and **melting land ice** (glaciers + ice sheets add water).

Warming ocean water expands and takes up more space, raising sea level with no extra water added.

Temperature belts move **polewards/uphill**, so the climate a biome/species needs moves too.

Animals migrate **earlier** (warmth arrives sooner) and shift their range **polewards** to track climate/food.

It opens new **shipping routes** (e.g. Northern Sea Route) for part of the year, but storms/ice can disrupt them.

**Identify** = read a value/region straight off; **Describe** = state the trend/pattern AND quote figures.

**For / Against / Judgement**, each side anchored to a named example, ending on a justified stance.

Something in the environment that can cause illness, injury or death.

**Heat stress** -- heatstroke, dehydration and heart strain, worst in heatwaves.

Warmth lets mosquitoes and other vectors survive in new, once-cooler areas, spreading malaria and dengue.

Heat speeds bacterial growth (dirtier water) and droughts cut harvests, raising disease and malnutrition.

Heat illness, and the spread of infectious disease (also water/food insecurity, mental health).

A person forced to move because climate change makes their home unlivable.

The elderly, the very young, the sick and the poor.

It usually acts **alongside** poverty, jobs and conflict, not on its own.

Weigh climate change FOR/AGAINST other drivers with named examples, then give a justified judgement.

**Outline** = state the feature briefly; **Explain** = give the mechanism / chain of cause and effect.

How likely a group is to be harmed by a hazard, and how badly.

Whether people are physically in the path of a hazard (e.g. living on a flood plain).

The ability to prepare for, cope with and recover from impacts (money, defences, warnings).

**Exposure** (in the hazard's path) + **low adaptive capacity** (little ability to cope).

Poverty, where people are forced to live, and weak governance (also reliance on farming, gender/age).

Wealth buys **defences, insurance and safer locations**, so they cope and recover better.

A low, flat, poor delta with dense populations on flood plains and little protection or savings.

High income funds strong sea defences, pumps and early-warning - high adaptive capacity.

They do much farming/water work, own fewer assets, and may be last to eat or evacuate.

Climate harms fall **unequally** across places and social groups - the poorest are hit hardest.

With a **clear, justified judgement**, not just a list of both sides.

Give a plausible factor AND **develop** it (factor -> why it raises vulnerability).

Action that reduces the **causes** of climate change — cutting greenhouse-gas emissions or removing CO₂.

**Mitigation** = reduce the causes (cut emissions); **adaptation** = cope with the effects.

A **cap** on total emissions plus **tradable permits**, so polluting costs money and firms are paid to cut emissions.

Funding emission cuts elsewhere (e.g. tree planting) to **balance** emissions you produce.

Large-scale removal of CO₂ from power stations or the air, then storing it.

The **EU Emissions Trading System** caps industry/power emissions + tradable permits → a financial reason to decarbonise.

Generates ~**99% of electricity from renewables** and pays to protect forests.

2015 global deal; countries pledge emission cuts to keep warming well below 2 °C.

A **balanced** two-sided argument with **named examples** and a **justified judgement**.

Advantage: symbol size shows the value at each place. Disadvantage: hard to read exact values.

Action that **reduces or removes** greenhouse-gas emissions to slow warming.

Adjusting life and infrastructure to **cope with impacts** already happening.

**Mitigation = cut the cause** (emissions); **adaptation = live with the effects** (defences).

The capacity of a place or community to **absorb shocks and recover** from climate impacts.

Action taken **between countries** (treaties, agreements, cooperation) rather than by one place alone.

A global treaty where almost every country pledges to keep warming **well below 2C**, aiming for 1.5C.

Shared target -> each country pledges emission cuts -> progress reviewed at **COP** summits.

The first treaty with **binding targets**, but only for **developed** countries.

The UN **science panel** that reviews the evidence and reports on climate risks.

**Goal 13 (Climate Action)**; the 17 SDGs run to **2030**.

Emissions cross borders, so **no single country can fix it alone** — nations must cooperate.

With a **clear, justified judgement** that weighs both sides, using named examples.

The **area of land and sea** needed to supply one person's resources and absorb their waste (in global hectares).

The **hidden water** used along the whole supply chain to **produce** a good or service.

Drinking water is **direct/visible**; embedded water is the **hidden** water used to make products.

About **2,700 litres** to grow and process the cotton.

It converts resource use into a **land area** — more consumption means a **bigger** footprint.

**Diet** (more meat = more water) and **technology** (efficient irrigation lowers it); also trade and wealth.

Meat and dairy are **water-intensive**, so eating more of them locks more hidden water into the diet.

**Highest value minus lowest value** — show the subtraction.

How much **productive land and sea is available** to supply resources and absorb waste.

**Largest** footprints in high-income regions (North America, the Gulf); **smallest** in low-income regions.

Households with enough **disposable income** to spend beyond essentials (often roughly $11-110 a day).

Money left after paying for essentials, which can be spent or saved.

As incomes rise, diets move from starchy staples to more **meat, dairy, sugar and processed food**.

Higher disposable income and urbanisation (also globalisation/advertising and busier lifestyles).

Meat and dairy are **very water-intensive** - e.g. about **15,000 L per kg of beef** vs ~1,500 L per kg of wheat.

**Water**, **land** and **energy** (plus higher greenhouse-gas emissions).

As its middle class grew, **meat consumption per person roughly doubled**; China now eats about a quarter of the world's meat.

As income rises, the **share** of income spent on food **falls** (about 48% in low income to 9% in high income).

By **who was asked** - e.g. city-only, self-selecting or non-responding samples that don't represent everyone.

It is a powerful pressure (especially on water via diet) but interacts with **climate, population and governance** - so it depends on place.

It is **rising**, driven by a growing population and middle class.

It is **falling** - efficiency, a shift to services, and cleaner fuels.

It is **rising fast** as the middle class, industry and cities grow.

The total amount **divided by the population**.

Energy **efficiency**, a shift to **services**, and switching to cleaner electricity.

Rising **incomes** (cars, appliances, travel), **industrialisation** and **urbanisation**.

Capital to build supply, money to import fuel, and efficient technology.

Discarded **electrical and electronic** equipment (phones, TVs, computers).

**Growing** in some fast-developing nations (low-carbon base-load); **declining** in others over cost and safety.

A **pie chart** (or stacked bar) - it shows each part as a proportion of the total.

A **line graph** - it shows the trend clearly.

Read a value or range **straight off** the figure, with units.

When **all people, at all times, have reliable access** to enough safe, nutritious food.

**Availability** = is there enough food in the area; **access** = can people reach and afford it.

If the poor **cannot afford** it, access fails even when food is available.

**Drought/climate, conflict, poverty/high prices, rapid population growth** (also land degradation, pests).

Failed rains and heat **ruin harvests**, so less food is produced and people go hungry.

War **destroys farms and blocks supply routes**, so food cannot reach people.

Higher incomes mean **more meat, dairy and variety** and more food eaten overall.

**Meat and dairy need far more land and feed-grain**, so land is cleared to graze animals and grow feed.

Better technology, irrigation and infrastructure let a country **grow and import more food**.

It can **lower** it (drought, failed harvests) but also **raise** it where new areas become warm enough to farm.

**Describe** = state where the zones are; **Explain** = give the reason behind the pattern.

Reliable access to enough **safe** and affordable water for a population's needs.

A **reliable, affordable** and uninterrupted supply of energy.

Drought and climate change, and pollution (also over-abstraction and shared-river disputes).

Import dependence and geopolitical conflict (also droughts cutting hydropower).

Low river/reservoir levels cut **hydropower**, and water shortages limit cooling for thermal/nuclear plants.

**Environmental** = drought/heat cutting supply; **geopolitical** = conflict, sanctions or a pipeline dispute.

Safety fears after accidents and dangerous, long-lived radioactive waste (also high cost and long build time).

**High daily sunshine** and **low rainfall/cloud** — many clear sunny days.

A problem caused by **relations between countries** — a conflict, sanctions or a pipeline dispute.

Producing energy uses water (cooling, hydropower) and supplying clean water uses energy (pumping, treatment).

Cape Town (2018): three dry years dropped dams below 20%, nearing a 'Day Zero' shut-off.

More meat/dairy and manufactured goods raise **water-intensive** demand, stretching supply.

The way the three resources are **linked and interdependent**, so securing one affects the other two.

Reliable, affordable access to enough water, food and energy.

Gaining one resource at the cost of another (e.g. more biofuel means less food).

Farming needs **water** for irrigation and **energy** for machinery, fertiliser and transport.

Thermal and nuclear plants need water for **cooling**, and hydropower stores water behind dams.

A dam floods fertile farmland, or irrigation upstream leaves less river water for downstream farms.

Growing crops for **biofuel** takes land and water away from food.

Around **70%** of the world's freshwater.

The **Nile basin** -- Ethiopia's hydropower dam vs Egypt's downstream farms.

It shifts rainfall and droughts and raises temperatures, cutting water for farms and energy and lowering yields.

**Population growth** and **richer diets** raising demand for all three resources.

Both sides, **named examples** and a **justified judgement**.

Managing resources **responsibly** so they are used carefully and **kept available for future generations**.

An economy that **reuses, repairs and recycles** materials to keep them in use and cut waste.

The 'take, make, dispose' model that turns resources straight into **waste**.

The land and water area needed to supply a population's resources and absorb its waste.

**Designing out waste**, **reuse/repair**, and **recycling materials** (also renting/sharing, renewable inputs).

Clean power cuts the carbon from fossil fuels, so less land is needed to absorb it.

Solar/wind farms take up land and mining their metals uses extra resources.

Recycle/reuse water and cut leaks (also storage/harvesting and desalination).

It cuts demand for new raw materials, lowering costs and reliance on imports.

It needs costly new systems and people must change attitudes to **owning** products.

The **Netherlands** aims to be fully circular by 2050, reusing materials and designing for repair.

Both sides argued, a **named example**, comparison with alternatives, and a clear **judgement**.

**Boserup** — she argued population pressure drives innovation that grows more food.

**Malthus** — he feared population would outgrow food, causing famine.

'**Necessity is the mother of invention**' — more people forces new ways to grow more food.

Malthus saw food as **fixed**; Boserup saw it as **flexible**, rising with demand through technology.

The largest population an area can support with its available resources.

High-yield crops (Green Revolution) and **irrigation** — also mechanisation, fertiliser, land reclamation.

Introduced **high-yield** wheat and rice varieties that sharply raised grain output (e.g. India).

It brings water to dry land, turning barren ground into productive farmland and raising food output.

Meeting present needs without preventing future generations from meeting theirs.

If **food per person rises** over time, food has out-grown population — backing the optimist, not Malthus.

**Two** developed points, each linking a feature/method to **more food production** (1 + 1 per point).

The **area of land drained by a river and its tributaries** — the catchment, bounded by the watershed.

The **boundary of a drainage basin** — the high ground separating one basin from the next.

Both water and energy **cross its boundary in and out** — rain enters; water leaves as discharge and evapotranspiration.

**Inputs** (precipitation), **stores**, **flows/transfers**, and **outputs** (evapotranspiration, river discharge).

**Interception**, **surface storage**, **soil water**, **groundwater** and **channel storage**.

**Infiltration**, **throughflow**, **overland flow**, **percolation** and **base flow**.

**Precipitation = evapotranspiration + run-off +/- change in storage.**

**Overland flow** is fastest; **throughflow** slower; **base flow** (groundwater) slowest.

Leaf surfaces have a **storage limit** — once full, no more rain can be intercepted and it passes to the ground.

Impermeable surfaces cut **infiltration** and storage; drains and bare ground raise **overland flow** — a faster response.

**Evapotranspiration** (to the air) and **river discharge** (to the sea).

Strength: it shows **interrelationships** and predicts discharge/land-use effects. Weakness: it is a **simplification** with fuzzy boundaries and patchy data.

The **volume of water passing a point per second**, measured in cumecs (m³/s).

A graph showing how a river's **discharge responds to a storm** over time (rainfall bars above, discharge curve below).

The **highest discharge** the river reaches after a storm.

The gap between **peak rainfall** and **peak discharge** — how fast the basin responds.

**Rising limb** = the steep climb as run-off reaches the river; **falling (recession) limb** = the gentler fall as it drains.

The steady background discharge from **groundwater** between storms.

A **short lag time + high peak** — impermeable, steep, urban, sparse vegetation; water reaches the river fast.

A **long lag time + lower peak** — permeable, gentle, vegetated, rural; water reaches the river slowly.

Impermeable surfaces stop infiltration and drains speed run-off → higher peak, shorter lag time.

Both **increase** — tributaries add water and the larger, smoother channel is more efficient (Bradshaw model).

Geology/permeability and relief/slope (also soil, vegetation, rainfall intensity, basin shape).

Two+ developed factors (peak + lag), an example, a weighing of their relative importance, and a clear judgement.

**Hydraulic action**, **abrasion** (corrasion), **attrition**, and **solution** (corrosion).

**Traction** (rolling), **saltation** (bouncing), **suspension** (held in flow), **solution** (dissolved).

When its **velocity falls** and it loses energy - heaviest load dropped first, finest last.

Soft rock under a hard caprock is eroded faster, drilling a **plunge pool**; the undercut lip collapses and the fall **retreats**, cutting a gorge.

The river's **load scrapes along the channel**, wearing the bed and banks wider and deeper (sandpaper effect).

V-shaped valley, gorge, interlocking spurs, rapids or potholes (any erosional feature).

Where the river meets the sea/lake its **velocity falls**, it drops its load (heaviest first) and **flocculation** clumps the clay - sediment builds up faster than waves remove it.

**Erosion** on the fast **outer bend** (river cliff); **deposition** on the slow **inner bend** (slip-off slope / point bar).

Erosion narrows a meander neck until the river breaks through at a flood; deposition then seals off the old loop as a crescent lake.

A **raised bank** of coarse sediment dropped first when a flood spills over the channel edge and slows.

Differences in **drop height/velocity**, **geology** (rock resistance), **discharge** (basin size/climate) and **load** (abrasion).

BOTH erosion AND deposition developed, a named river, a weighing of which dominates where/when, and a clear judgement.

When **discharge rises above bankfull** so the channel overflows onto the floodplain.

The **probability** of a damaging flood multiplied by the **harm** (damage, lives) it would cause.

**Built structures** that control the river — dams, levees, flood walls, channel straightening.

**Natural and planning** approaches — afforestation, floodplain zoning, river restoration, warning systems.

A raised embankment that **increases channel capacity**, so more discharge is carried before the river overtops.

Land-use planning that **keeps housing off the most flood-prone land**, removing risk at source.

It speeds the flow, so water reaches **downstream** settlements faster — raising the flood peak there.

Trees intercept rain and aid infiltration, slowing run-off so the **flood peak is lower and delayed**.

It stops the river spreading locally, so more water is carried faster **downstream**, raising the peak there — risk is transferred.

Hard = powerful but costly and shifts risk; soft = cheaper and sustainable but slower and less certain against extreme floods.

Intense rainfall and steep relief (also impermeable geology, a round/compact basin, sparse vegetation).

Two+ contrasting measures linked to the flood peak, a named scheme, a weighing of effectiveness vs cost/side-effects, and a clear judgement.

How clean and usable fresh water is — its levels of **nutrients, oxygen, sediment, salts and chemicals**.

Enrichment of water with **nutrients (nitrate, phosphate)**, causing algal blooms and oxygen loss.

A rapid surface growth of algae that **blocks light** and later **uses up oxygen** as it decays.

Water so low in oxygen (**hypoxic**) that fish and other animals cannot survive.

A **build-up of salts** in soil and water, often from over-irrigation in dry areas.

**Point source** = one identifiable outlet (a pipe); **diffuse (non-point)** = spread across an area (run-off from fields).

Nutrients to **algal bloom** to algae decay to bacteria use the **oxygen** to **dead zone** to fish die.

Fertiliser run-off (also sewage, detergents, industrial discharge) adding nutrients to the water.

Shallow, warm, slow-moving or enclosed water that concentrates nutrients and speeds algal growth.

It raises the water table; as that water evaporates it leaves **salt concentrated at the surface**, poisoning crops.

Fertiliser run-off causing eutrophication, and **draining/abstraction** altering the water flow.

Two+ developed effects/stakeholders, an example, a weighing of relative severity, and a clear judgement.

When there is **not enough fresh water** to meet people's needs (measured per person per year).

Supply **below 1 700 m3 per person per year** — demand begins to strain supply.

**Physical** = the natural supply is too small (dry climate, low water table); **economic** = water exists but money/infrastructure stops people reaching it.

Below **1 700 m3** = stress; below **1 000 m3** = scarcity; below **500 m3** = absolute scarcity (per person per year).

An **underground rock store of groundwater**; over-abstraction is pumping it faster than it recharges.

Pumping groundwater faster than rainfall refills it; it causes the **water table to fall** (also subsidence, saltwater intrusion).

Low/seasonal rainfall and drought (also rain shadow, falling water table, El Nino/La Nina, cold currents).

Lack of money for pipes/pumps/dams and rising demand from population, cities and irrigation (also weak governance).

Crops fail and yields drop, so farmers lose income, food prices rise and people may migrate.

The **Sahel** of West Africa — low, erratic rainfall and recurring drought leave little surface water.

Much of **rural sub-Saharan Africa** — water exists but villages lack boreholes, pipes and funds to use it.

Developed physical AND economic causes, a named example for each, weighing by place/scale, and a clear judgement.

Managing the **whole basin as one system**, coordinating all users and riparian countries for fair, sustainable water use.

A barrier across a river that holds water back in a **reservoir**, letting the operator control downstream flow.

The artificial lake stored **behind a dam**.

Any group with an interest in the water — farmers, cities, industry, power firms, fishers, the environment.

A country the river **flows through**, with a claim to its water.

Deliberately topping up **underground water stores** by directing surface or recycled water down into them.

Reliable water supply, hydro-electricity, irrigation and **flood control**.

Flooded land/displaced people upstream, and **less silt/water** reaching downstream farmers and ecosystems.

It **traps silt and water** in its reservoir, so soils lose fertility and there is less irrigation water — yields fall.

Cities have the **highest water demand** and produce the storm-water/recycled water used to recharge.

Coordinated/equitable water use and long-term sustainability (also stakeholder cooperation, ecosystem protection).

Writing only about **one dam's benefits** — you must give two developed advantages of the **whole-basin plan**.

Any party with an **interest in how a water resource is managed** — farmers, residents, industry, fishers, government, conservationists, other countries.

Because stakeholders have **competing demands** (drinking, farming, energy, fishing, nature) and **unequal power** — one party's gain is another's loss.

Land that is **saturated or covered by water** — marsh, swamp, floodplain, delta or bog.

**Flood control**, **water cleaning/filtering**, **carbon storage**, and **wildlife habitat** (also fishing and recreation).

They are **drained** for farmland, buildings and roads, so they degrade fast despite their value.

A river, lake or aquifer **shared across international borders**, so no single government controls it — a common source of conflict.

The 1971 **international treaty** under which countries protect wetlands of global importance.

Cities/government gain power, growth and flood control, while displaced communities and downstream fishers lose homes, water and silt — national benefits vs local costs.

**Rainwater harvesting** and **metering/pricing + leak repair** (also recycling, drip irrigation, boreholes, quotas).

**Three Gorges (Yangtze)** — huge power and flood control, but about 1.3 million people relocated: benefits and costs fall unevenly.

**The Nile / Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam** — Ethiopia dams the Blue Nile upstream while Egypt fears losing water downstream.

A stakeholder map, two+ developed points with a **named case study and data**, recognition of **unequal power**, and a **justified judgement**.

A continuous, directed flow of seawater (e.g. the warm Gulf Stream, the cold Humboldt Current).

A large, roughly circular system of surface currents driven by winds and the Coriolis effect (clockwise in the northern hemisphere).

The slow, global deep-ocean circulation driven by differences in **temperature** (thermo) and **salinity** (haline).

Cold, **nutrient-rich** deep water rising to the surface (e.g. off Peru), feeding plankton and large fisheries.

The warm ENSO phase: trade winds weaken, warm water spreads east, and upwelling off South America is **suppressed**.

The cold ENSO phase: trade winds strengthen, the eastern Pacific **cools**, and upwelling **intensifies**.

El Nino = eastern Pacific warms + upwelling off Peru collapses; La Nina = eastern Pacific cools + upwelling strengthens.

Warm water shuts down the Humboldt upwelling, so nutrients fall, anchovy stocks collapse, and fishing income drops.

Fewer Atlantic hurricanes (more wind shear), so the US Gulf and Caribbean coasts suffer fewer tropical storms.

Heavy rain and flooding in eastern Australia/SE Asia, and worse drought and wildfire in California.

Subtract the lowest reading from the highest reading (e.g. +2.25 - (-1.50) = 3.75), then quote the units.

A developed benefit AND harm in different regions, named places, a weighing of which outweighs, and a balanced judgement.

A large, rotating **low-pressure** system with very strong winds and heavy rain, fuelled by a **warm ocean**.

The same hazard in different regions: **hurricane** (Atlantic/E Pacific), **typhoon** (W Pacific/Asia), **cyclone** (Indian Ocean/Australia).

About **26.5 °C or warmer**, and warm to roughly 50 m depth, to supply enough energy.

The **energy released when water vapour condenses** into cloud — the storm's fuel.

The Earth's spin makes the storm **rotate**; it also stops storms forming right on the Equator.

The wall of seawater the winds push ashore — usually the **deadliest** part of the hazard.

Warm sea → **evaporation** → vapour rises and condenses, releasing **latent heat** → air rises faster, pressure falls, storm intensifies.

Its **fuel is cut off** — no warm-water evaporation, so it loses energy and the winds drop.

More energy (stronger winds), more rain, and a **higher storm surge** — and they widen where storms can form.

**State** = read a direction/region straight off; **Estimate** = the **time gap** between two points (or distance ÷ speed).

**Vulnerability** matters too — low, crowded, poor coasts (e.g. the **Sundarbans**) suffer most for a given storm.

Two+ developed points (warm-ocean mechanism AND vulnerability), a named example, accurate terms, and a clear judgement.

**Marine** = the **sea** does the work (waves, hydraulic action, abrasion). **Subaerial** = the **land/air** does it above the waterline (weathering, mass movement).

The **zig-zag transport of sediment along a coast** by waves that hit the shore at an angle.

The **rock type and its resistance** — hard rock erodes slowly, soft rock fast.

Crack -> cave -> **arch** -> **stack** -> **stump**; the cliff also retreats to leave a **wave-cut platform**.

A gently sloping **rock bench at the cliff foot**, left behind as the cliff is undercut and retreats.

**Freeze-thaw weathering**, **salt weathering** and **mass movement** (slumping/rockfall). NOT wave action.

A drying beach + onshore wind move sand; an obstacle traps it; **vegetation** colonises and fixes it into a tall dune.

It **traps wind-blown sand** (slowing the wind) and **binds the sand with roots** (marram grass), so the dune grows and stays fixed.

**Emergent** (sea falls/land rises) -> **raised beaches + relict cliffs**. **Submergent** (sea rises/land sinks) -> **rias + fjords**.

Ice melts -> land is unloaded -> it **rebounds upward (isostatic uplift)**, stranding an old beach **above** the present sea.

A glacier carves a deep **U-shaped valley** below sea level; the ice melts and **sea level rises**, drowning the valley.

**Two+ developed factors/processes**, a **named coast**, a weighing of their **relative importance**, and a clear **judgement**.

A ridge built by tiny **coral polyps** that need warm, clear, shallow, sunlit, salty water.

When sea water gets too warm, corals **expel the algae** that feed and colour them, turning white and often dying.

Extra **CO2** dissolving in seawater makes it more acidic, so corals struggle to build their **skeletons**.

**Salt-tolerant trees** rooted in the sheltered, shallow **intertidal zone** of tropical coasts.

Sheltered, **low-energy** shallow water in warm tropical seas (e.g. estuaries and lagoons).

Reefs **break wave energy**; mangrove roots **absorb storm-surge** and trap sediment - shielding the shore.