Diplomacy, Alliances and the Origins of the First World War (1871–1914)

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Bismarck built the Dual Alliance (1879), Triple Alliance (1882) and Reinsurance Treaty (1887) to ensure France had no powerful allies in Europe who would help it seek revenge for the loss of Alsace-Lorraine.

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A conference hosted by Bismarck to revise the Treaty of San Stefano. It cut back Russia's gains from the Russo-Turkish War, kept the Balkans stable, and established Bismarck as Europe's 'honest broker'. It left Russia resentful.

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Kaiser Wilhelm II's 'world policy' — ambition to make Germany a global imperial power with a large navy and overseas empire. It alarmed Britain and France and drove them into the Triple Entente.

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German legislation to build a large ocean-going fleet, masterminded by Admiral Tirpitz. They challenged British naval supremacy and were a key reason Britain ended its 'splendid isolation' and aligned with France.

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Triple Alliance: Germany + Austria-Hungary + Italy (1882). Triple Entente: Franco-Russian Alliance (1894) + Entente Cordiale between France and Britain (1904) + Anglo-Russian Convention (1907).

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Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina; Serbia and Russia objected. Germany backed Austria-Hungary and Russia backed down, humiliated. Russia resolved never to back down again — this stiffened Russia's resolve in July 1914.

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Germany's war plan to defeat France quickly by invading through Belgium, then transfer forces east against Russia. Violating Belgian neutrality brought Britain into the war on 4 August 1914.

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Germany's unconditional promise of support to Austria-Hungary given in early July 1914. It allowed Austria-Hungary to issue a harsh ultimatum to Serbia without seeking compromise, escalating the July Crisis into a general war.

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28 June: assassination of Franz Ferdinand → 5–6 July: blank cheque → 23 July: Austro-Hungarian ultimatum to Serbia → 28 July: Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia → 1 Aug: Germany declares war on Russia → 3 Aug: Germany declares war on France → 4 Aug: Britain declares war on Germany.

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Fischer argued Germany deliberately planned and sought the First World War as a war of aggression aimed at achieving European and world hegemony. It was controversial — critics argued he overstated German guilt and ignored the roles of Austria-Hungary, Russia and France.

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The theory that German leaders used aggressive foreign policy (and ultimately war) to distract the working class from domestic inequality and unite the population behind nationalism, managing social tensions at home.

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As Ottoman power collapsed, Balkan states fought for territory. Serbia grew stronger in the Balkan Wars (1912–13) and Serb nationalism threatened Austria-Hungary's multi-ethnic empire. This Austro-Serbian rivalry was the immediate context for the assassination of Franz Ferdinand in 1914.