Religion, Conflict, and the Catholic Response (1522–1563)

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Franz von Sickingen led lesser German nobles against the princes and bishops, hoping to exploit religious upheaval. The princes united and crushed the revolt in 1523. It showed the princes held real power in Germany — not the knights.

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A manifesto issued by peasants at the start of the Peasants' War. They cited Scripture to demand an end to serfdom, fair rents, and access to common land — using Luther's religious language to justify social demands.

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Luther condemned the peasants in 'Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants' (1525) and urged princes to suppress them. This permanently damaged his support among the poor but tied the Reformation firmly to the German princes.

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The radical reformation rejected infant baptism, state churches, and compromise. Anabaptists (who practised adult baptism) were seen as a threat to both social order and mainstream Protestant reform. The Münster disaster (1535) confirmed these fears.

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A defensive military alliance of Lutheran princes and cities formed in 1531 at Schmalkalden. It protected Protestant territories and Church lands against Catholic reconquest by the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V.

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'Whose realm, his religion' — the ruler of each territory chose whether it would be Catholic or Lutheran. Agreed at the Peace of Augsburg (1555). Subjects who disagreed could emigrate. Calvinism was excluded.

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Paul III (1534–49) was the architect: he convened Trent (1545), approved the Jesuits (1540), and created the Roman Inquisition (1542). Paul IV (1555–59) was a repressive enforcer: he expanded the Index of Forbidden Books and rejected dialogue with Protestants.

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Ignatius of Loyola founded the Society of Jesus, approved by Paul III in 1540. Three main activities: education (schools and universities), missions to the Americas and Asia, and reconverting Protestant regions in Germany and Poland.

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Trent rejected Luther's 'sola fide' — it reaffirmed that both faith AND good works are required for salvation. It confirmed all seven sacraments and reaffirmed transubstantiation. No compromise with Protestant doctrine was offered.

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Trent required each diocese to establish a seminary (priest-training college), bishops to reside in their diocese, and condemned simony and absenteeism. It condemned abuses in selling indulgences while retaining the practice itself.

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Established by Paul III to try heresy in Italy — a papal body, not a royal one. It was most active in Italian cities and helped prevent Protestantism taking root in Italy. The Spanish Inquisition was under royal (not papal) control.

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Effective: Trent renewed internal discipline, Jesuits held southern Europe and began reconversion, Inquisition blocked Protestant spread in Italy. Limited: Germany, England, and Scandinavia remained Protestant; the Peace of Augsburg (1555) legally recognised this division.