The French Revolution — Napoleonic empire and defeat

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A unified legal code imposed across Napoleon's territories guaranteeing legal equality and abolishing feudal privilege, though it gave women no political rights.

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Ghetto walls were torn down in cities like Rome and Venice, and Jews gained legal equality for the first time.

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Napoleon's economic blockade banning European trade with Britain, meant to cripple the British economy without invasion.

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Smuggling made it unenforceable; it damaged allied economies (including Italy's and Russia's), breeding resentment and directly triggering the 1812 Russian invasion.

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Around 600,000 invaded; fewer than 100,000 made it back after the retreat.

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Scorched-earth retreat — the Russians burned crops and villages and avoided a decisive battle, denying Napoleon supplies and a quick victory.

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A costly but indecisive battle; it failed to destroy the Russian army, and Napoleon went on to occupy an abandoned, burning Moscow.

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The 'Battle of the Nations,' where the Sixth Coalition decisively defeated Napoleon, leading to his 1814 abdication and exile to Elba.

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The period from March to June 1815 when Napoleon escaped exile on Elba, returned to France, and rebuilt an army before final defeat at Waterloo.

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Wellington's coalition army held out against Napoleon until Blücher's Prussian forces arrived, tipping the battle decisively against France.

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Political: centralised administration and unified law replaced fragmented states, but with no real independence. Economic: roads and standardised currency helped trade, but heavy taxation and conscription drained resources.

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Because his own choices (Continental System, invading Russia) directly provoked stronger coalitions — so his mistakes and his enemies' strength are deeply intertwined, not separate causes.