Key Idea: Rights are protected — and violated — by many actors: states (which both guarantee and abuse rights), IGOs & courts (ICJ, ICC, UNHRC, UNHCR), regional human-rights courts, NGOs (Amnesty), and companies. The exam skill: weigh who actually protects rights, and why even the protectors have limits.
📚 The actors at a glance
Who protects (and violates) rights
- The state — The main protector AND the main potential violator — the 'state paradox'. It has the power to guarantee or crush rights.
- IGOs & courts — The ICJ, ICC, UNHRC, UNHCR and regional human-rights courts codify, monitor and (sometimes) enforce rights.
- NGOs & civil society — Amnesty and others expose abuses, campaign and give victims a voice — but they cannot enforce.
- Companies & others — MNCs can violate workers' rights or help uphold standards; individuals and movements press for change.
⚖️ The debates that come up
- Main protector of rights
- Also the main violator
- Judge: rights need the state AND limits on it
- Set standards, try crimes
- Limited reach, need cooperation
- Judge: real but under-enforced
- Expose and pressure
- Cannot enforce
- Judge: complement the state
Discuss the view that the state is the greatest threat to human rights.
Model answer plan
See the mark-by-mark plan — for / against / judgement, with marking guidance — in study mode.
The 15-mark markband (Paper 2)
Bands 1–6
Mostly descriptive; perspectives <strong>not identified</strong>.
avoid
Bands 7–9
Clear knowledge, but perspectives <strong>identified, not explored</strong>.
7–9
Bands 10–12
Well-supported argument; perspectives <strong>explored</strong>.
10–12
Bands 13–15
Balanced, compelling; perspectives <strong>explored AND evaluated</strong>.
13–15
Important: Treating the state as only a protector OR only a violator. Examiners reward the <strong>state paradox</strong> — the state both guarantees and threatens rights — and recognising that IGOs, courts and NGOs help but cannot replace a capable, accountable state.
Answer in your head first, then tap to reveal.
What is the 'state paradox' in rights? The state is both the main protector of rights (laws, courts, services) and the main potential violator (it has the power to repress) — so rights need a capable state AND limits on it.
What do IGOs and courts do for rights? Bodies like the ICJ, ICC, UNHRC, UNHCR and regional courts codify, monitor and sometimes try rights violations — but their reach is limited and they depend on state cooperation.
What role do NGOs play? NGOs like Amnesty expose abuses, campaign and give victims a voice, but they cannot enforce — so they complement rather than replace the state and courts.
How can companies affect rights? MNCs can violate workers' rights (low wages, unsafe conditions) or help uphold standards; they are powerful actors whose behaviour depends on regulation.
Who is the most important rights actor? The state — because only it can guarantee rights at scale — but it must be constrained by law, courts, IGOs and civil society to stop it becoming the violator.
Exam tips
- Use the state paradox: protector AND violator.
- Know the courts: ICJ, ICC, UNHRC, UNHCR, regional courts.
- NGOs expose and pressure but cannot enforce.
- Judge: rights need a capable state bound by checks.