Natural resources—uses and management

Natural resources are materials and components from nature that humans use for survival and economic activity.

Renewable: timber, freshwater (if managed), fish stocks, wind/solar. Non-renewable: coal, oil, natural gas, metals/minerals.

As countries develop, resource consumption typically increases due to industrialisation, urbanisation, and rising consumption of goods and energy.

Industrialisation increases demand for energy (fuels/electricity) and materials (metals, minerals, construction inputs) for factories, infrastructure, and production.

Renewable resources can be replenished naturally on human timescales; non-renewable resources have a finite supply formed over geological time and cannot be replaced once depleted.

A resource can regenerate, but only stays renewable when extraction stays at/below regeneration; overuse can deplete it and make recovery very slow or impossible.

Examples include fossil fuels (coal/oil/gas), freshwater, timber, minerals/metals (e.g., copper), fertile soil/land, fish stocks.

Ecological footprint measures human demand on natural resources; biocapacity measures nature’s ability to supply resources and absorb wastes.

Per-capita resource use is much higher in HICs than LICs, even though total demand is rising globally.

When it is used faster than it regenerates (harvest rate exceeds regeneration rate), causing long-term depletion (e.g., overfishing).

Describing trends in resource extraction/use from data by stating overall trend, differences between regions, and rate of change (with figures when possible).

A dispute or violence linked to competition for control, access, or distribution of resources (e.g., water, oil, minerals).

The resource curse is when countries rich in natural resources experience poor governance, corruption, conflict, or slower development despite resource wealth.

Sustainable use occurs when the harvest/extraction rate is at or below the natural regeneration rate.

Because resources are unevenly distributed, creating dependence, power imbalances, and competition over access and profits.

Benefits include employment, export revenue/tax income, and infrastructure development funded by resource profits.

Habitat destruction, pollution (water/air/soil), and landscape degradation (subsidence/erosion) are major impacts.

Open-pit/strip mining removes vegetation and topsoil, and creates large disturbed areas that fragment or eliminate habitats.

Acid mine drainage is acidic water formed when exposed sulfide minerals react with oxygen and water, dissolving metals and polluting waterways.

Benefit: jobs and revenue. Cost: displacement and health impacts from pollution or accidents.

Social costs include displacement/relocation, health impacts from pollution and accidents, and cultural disruption (often for indigenous groups).

It suggests resource-rich countries may experience corruption, conflict, and weak institutions, which can reduce development outcomes.

Water pollution (oil spills/heavy metals), air pollution (dust/SO2), and soil contamination (tailings/chemicals) are common extraction-related pollutants.

A boom-bust cycle is rapid growth during high commodity prices followed by economic decline when prices fall, leaving communities vulnerable.

Environmental justice means extraction harms and risks should not fall disproportionately on low-income or indigenous communities; decision-making should be fair and inclusive.

Open-pit mining removes vegetation (cause) which increases soil erosion and sediment runoff into rivers (effects), reducing water quality and aquatic habitats.

Use cause → effect chains and (when possible) add a named case study (e.g., Niger Delta oil impacts) to support points.

Present both benefits and costs, discuss who gains vs who loses, and reach a justified conclusion using a named example where possible.

Extraction, processing, and transport use energy and can release methane (e.g., coal mining, gas leaks), increasing greenhouse gas emissions.

Named examples show real-world understanding and make evaluation more specific (impacts, stakeholders, and outcomes are clearer).

Examples include quotas (limits on extraction) and protected areas (no-extraction zones), plus legislation like EIA requirements.

Sustainable resource management is using resources at a rate that meets current needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their needs.

Resources should be managed so future generations have access to natural capital and ecosystem services, not depleted by present use.

A certification scheme sets sustainability standards and labels compliant products, e.g., FSC (timber) or MSC (fish).

Environmental (ecosystem health), economic (long-term viability), and social (equity and wellbeing).

Regulatory: quotas/protected areas. Economic: taxes/subsidies/permits. Behavioural: demand reduction, reuse, and recycling habits.

A strategy may be effective but unfair if costs fall on vulnerable groups; equitable strategies improve acceptance and long-term success.

Act to prevent serious harm even if scientific evidence is incomplete or uncertain.

Taxes/levies (pollution charges), subsidies for sustainable alternatives, tradeable permits, or payment for ecosystem services (PES).

Design products for reuse, repair, and recycling so materials stay in use longer and waste is minimised.

Those who cause pollution should bear the costs of managing it to prevent damage to human health or the environment.

Scalability is whether a strategy can be expanded to larger areas or populations while remaining effective and affordable.

Define sustainability, present multiple strategies (regulatory/economic/tech/behaviour), evaluate each using criteria, then conclude with a justified recommendation.

MSY is the largest harvest that can be taken indefinitely without depleting the resource, assuming the stock can regenerate.

Effectiveness, cost, feasibility/enforcement, equity (who pays/benefits), time scale, and side effects/co-benefits.