Water access, use and security

Only about 3% of Earth’s water is freshwater; most is frozen in ice caps/glaciers or stored as groundwater, leaving a tiny fraction as accessible surface water.

Only about 1% of Earth’s water is accessible freshwater (easy-to-use surface/near-surface freshwater).

Climate differences and geography (river basins/terrain) cause uneven distribution (also population and development).

Examples include climate (precipitation), geography/terrain, population density, economic development, pollution, and climate change.

Physical water scarcity occurs when there is not enough water in the environment to meet demand (for example due to arid climate, drought, or overuse).

Physical scarcity means not enough water exists. Economic scarcity means water exists but access is limited by money/infrastructure/governance.

Economic water scarcity occurs when water exists but people cannot access it due to poverty, lack of infrastructure, or weak governance.

Pollution can contaminate water, and climate change can alter precipitation patterns and increase drought risk.

Because precipitation patterns, river basins, geology (groundwater), and human factors (population, infrastructure, pollution) vary strongly by region.

Climate change is altering rainfall patterns and increasing the frequency of extremes such as droughts and floods.

Agriculture about 70%, industry about 20%, and domestic about 10% (varies by country).

Agriculture uses the most freshwater globally, about 70% (mainly for irrigation).

Agricultural (irrigation/livestock), industrial (manufacturing/cooling), and domestic (drinking/sanitation).

Irrigation is the biggest agricultural use of freshwater.

Because economies rely more on farming, irrigation can be less efficient, and industry/domestic consumption per person is often lower.

Agriculture dominates because farming is a larger part of the economy and irrigation is often less efficient.

Differences in climate (irrigation need) and economic structure (industry vs agriculture) change sector demand (also technology and diet).

Industrial and domestic use tend to be higher due to manufacturing, services, and higher per-person consumption.

Drip irrigation and improved irrigation scheduling/efficiency reduce water waste.

State the dominant sector(s) and explain why using clear drivers like climate, crop type, seasonal demand, and irrigation efficiency.

Reliable access to enough clean water.

Water security is having reliable access to sufficient quantities of clean water for health, livelihoods, ecosystems, and production.

Physical: not enough water exists. Economic: water exists but access is limited.

Water scarcity occurs when water demand exceeds the available supply in a region (quantity and/or quality).

Population growth, economic development, climate change, pollution, and urbanisation all increase water stress.

Population growth, economic development, and climate change (also pollution and urbanisation).

It reduces usable supply by contaminating water so it becomes unsafe or costly to treat.

Physical: desalination, water transfer, efficiency. Economic: infrastructure investment, improved governance, access and affordability programs.

Define water security and scarcity, compare physical vs economic scarcity, add drivers (population, development, climate, pollution), then evaluate conflict vs cooperation with a balanced conclusion.

Water stress affects billions of people globally (over 2 billion is commonly cited).

Supply-side increases available water (e.g., dams, desalination). Demand-side reduces consumption/waste (e.g., efficient irrigation, pricing, leak repair).

Supply: dams/reservoirs, desalination (also transfer, groundwater, rainwater harvesting). Demand: drip irrigation, leak repair (also pricing, education, efficient appliances, greywater).

Examples include dams/reservoirs, desalination, groundwater extraction, water transfer schemes, and rainwater harvesting.

Because increasing supply alone can be costly or damaging, and demand reduction alone may be insufficient; combining both improves resilience.

They can displace communities and alter river ecosystems by changing flow and blocking fish migration.

Examples include drip irrigation, water-efficient appliances, water pricing, greywater recycling, public education, and fixing leaks.

It can provide freshwater from seawater but is expensive and energy-intensive, and brine discharge can harm marine ecosystems.

Old infrastructure can lose a large share of treated water, so fixing leaks saves water without needing new supply.

Give a mix of supply and demand strategies and add one clear drawback for each (cost, energy use, environmental impacts) to show evaluation.

The most suitable strategy depends on climate, existing supply, technology, cost, governance, and environmental sensitivity.

Upstream areas can change river flow and quality, so downstream users depend on upstream decisions and management.

Because rivers cross borders, and upstream countries can control flow and quality, affecting downstream water security.

Rising demand from population growth, climate change reducing predictability, and competing uses (agriculture/industry/drinking) increase tensions (also upstream dams).

Legal treaties and joint management/monitoring bodies reduce conflict by creating rules and shared decision-making.

The Indus Waters Treaty (1960) is often cited as an example of long-term water sharing arrangements between India and Pakistan.

Examples include the Nile River dispute (Egypt/Sudan/Ethiopia) and the Indus River tensions (India/Pakistan) (also Jordan or Colorado).

International treaties, joint river-basin management bodies, and technology sharing (also water markets and virtual water trade).

It increases variability and uncertainty in water supply, making allocations harder and raising competition during drought.

Virtual water trade is importing water-intensive products (like crops) instead of using local water to produce them.

Use named examples of both tension and cooperation, explain conditions that enable cooperation (shared benefits, treaties, monitoring), then give a balanced judgement.