Sustainable development

Economic growth is an increase in real GDP — a quantitative measure of output. Economic development is a broader qualitative concept that includes improvements in living standards, health, education, equality, and freedom.

A set of 17 global goals adopted in 2015 with targets for 2030. They cover poverty, hunger, health, education, gender equality, clean water, energy, growth, inequality, climate, and more. They apply to all countries.

Resources that are rivalrous (one person's use reduces availability for others) but non-excludable (it is difficult to prevent access). Examples: fisheries, forests, groundwater, clean air.

When individuals act in self-interest and overuse a shared resource, depleting it for everyone. Each user benefits from taking more, but collectively the resource is destroyed. It is a form of market failure.

Development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (Brundtland definition, 1987). It balances economic, social, and environmental goals.

SDG 1: No Poverty. SDG 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth. SDG 10: Reduced Inequalities. These address the economic dimension of sustainable development — growth that is inclusive and benefits all.

Overfishing in international waters: each fleet maximises its catch (individual benefit), but the combined effect depletes fish stocks to the point where they may not recover, harming all fishing communities.

Growth often involves exploiting natural resources, increasing pollution, and depleting non-renewable resources. This creates negative externalities and environmental degradation that undermine long-term well-being and ecological balance.

The SDGs recognise that economic progress cannot be sustained without environmental protection. Goals like SDG 13 (Climate Action) and SDG 15 (Life on Land) sit alongside growth goals, requiring integrated policy approaches.

1) Economic sustainability: maintaining productive capacity and income. 2) Social sustainability: equity, health, education, well-being. 3) Environmental sustainability: preserving natural capital for future generations.

Lack of funding, conflicting goals (e.g. growth vs. climate), lack of enforcement (goals are voluntary), corruption, war, and wealthy nations not meeting aid commitments. Progress has been uneven across countries.

Because CPRs have no price signal (they are "free"), no property rights, and no exclusion mechanism. Without pricing or ownership, there is no incentive to conserve — the rational choice is to use as much as possible before others do.

Government regulation (quotas, bans), tradable permits, taxation (Pigouvian taxes), establishing property rights, international agreements, and community-based management. Each approach has trade-offs.

Yes — if growth is driven by green technology, renewable energy, efficient resource use, and circular economy practices. "Green growth" aims to decouple economic output from environmental degradation.

Reference specific SDGs to support arguments about development policies. For example, discuss trade liberalisation in the context of SDG 8 (growth) and SDG 10 (inequality), or environmental policy via SDG 13 (climate action).

A 2015 international treaty where 196 countries committed to limit global temperature rise to well below 2°C above pre-industrial levels (aiming for 1.5°C). Each country sets its own emission reduction targets (NDCs).

Short-term economic costs (higher prices, job losses in polluting industries, reduced growth) versus long-term environmental and economic benefits (preserved resources, avoided climate damage, new green industries).

A tax on carbon emissions (or fossil fuels) that raises the cost of pollution, incentivising firms and consumers to switch to cleaner alternatives. It internalises the negative externality of greenhouse gas emissions.

Carbon taxes raise energy and transport costs, which take a larger share of low-income households' budgets. Without compensation (e.g. rebates or transfer payments), the tax burden falls disproportionately on the poor.

The government sets a total emissions cap and issues permits. Firms that pollute less can sell surplus permits to firms that exceed their allocation. This creates a market price for pollution and overall emissions fall over time.

Environmental problems (climate change, ocean pollution) are global — one country's actions affect all others. Without cooperation, free-riding occurs: countries benefit from others' reductions without cutting their own emissions.

Governments can subsidise renewable energy, public transport, recycling, and green R&D. These lower costs for sustainable alternatives, making them competitive with polluting options and accelerating the transition.

Carbon leakage occurs when strict environmental regulations in one country cause firms to relocate production to countries with weaker rules. Total global emissions may not fall — they just shift location.

Countries can enjoy the benefits of others' emission reductions without making costly cuts themselves. Since they cannot be excluded from a cleaner planet, there is an incentive to cheat or set weak targets.

A circular economy designs out waste, keeps products and materials in use, and regenerates natural systems. Unlike the linear "take-make-dispose" model, it reduces resource extraction and pollution by reusing, recycling, and repairing.

Governments can set emission standards, ban harmful substances, require environmental impact assessments, and mandate renewable energy targets. Regulations directly limit damaging activities but may increase costs for industry.

Developed countries caused most historical emissions during industrialisation and have higher per-capita emissions. Developing countries argue they need to prioritise poverty reduction and growth, and the principle of "common but differentiated responsibilities" supports this.

Targets are voluntary (nationally determined) and non-binding, so countries cannot be punished for failing. Many countries are not on track to meet their pledges. There is no enforcement mechanism.

Market-based (taxes, permits): use price signals, efficient, allow flexibility. Command-and-control (regulations, bans): direct, certain outcome, but inflexible and may be costly. Best approach often combines both.

Political will, enforcement capacity, international cooperation, price elasticity of demand for polluting goods, availability of substitutes, technological progress, and the time frame for evaluation.