Reliability, replicates & evaluating method

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A **replicate** is one repeat of the same measurement. Several let you take a **mean** (reducing random error), **spot anomalies**, and check the result is **repeatable**.

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**Repeat each measurement more times and take the mean.** More replicates even out random error and make an anomaly stand out.

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$\bar{x} = \dfrac{\sum x}{n}$ — add the readings and divide by how many there are. The spread (range $=$ max $-$ min, or the standard deviation) shows how reliable the repeats are: small spread = reliable.

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**Reliable** = repeats of the same method agree. **Valid** = a fair test of the claim (a control + only one variable changed). **Accurate** = close to the true value.

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It sits **far outside the other repeats**. You re-check it or leave it out of the mean — which is only possible because you took several repeats.

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State **what the data show** (e.g. the means differ), then **weigh it against the limitations** (small sample, big spread/overlap, no control) for a **balanced** judgement.

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A **fix PLUS a matched reason** — e.g. 'more replicates **so the mean is more reliable**' or 'add a control **so the effect is shown to be due to the variable**'. A bare fix scores half.